<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Militar - QUANTARMY</title><description>Investigación sobre inteligencia artificial y el espectro militar.</description><link>https://quantarmy.com/</link><language>en</language><atom:link href="https://quantarmy.com/tag/militar/rss.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>Memetic Wars: how a meme war is orchestrated, measured and shut down</title><link>https://quantarmy.com/en/memetic-wars/</link><guid isPermaLink="true">https://quantarmy.com/en/memetic-wars/</guid><description>A Russian diplomat hounded by Shiba Inu dogs, a meme factory with a $1.25 million monthly budget and a Chinese operation with 7,704 accounts that almost nobody saw. Primary-source research on the parallel war of memes: how it is orchestrated, measured and shut down.</description><pubDate>Wed, 14 Oct 2026 10:00:00 GMT</pubDate><content:encoded>&lt;h2 id=&quot;a-diplomat-versus-a-pack-of-shiba-inus&quot;&gt;A diplomat versus a pack of Shiba Inus&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;June 2022. Mikhail Ulyanov, Russia&apos;s permanent representative to the international organisations in Vienna, replies on Twitter to an account whose avatar is a Shiba Inu wearing a military patch. He writes a clumsy line: &lt;em&gt;&quot;You pronounced this nonsense. Not me&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Within hours, hundreds of accounts with the same dog, each with its own twist, turn the phrase into a meme and chase it through every one of his replies. Vice ran the story under a blunt headline: the Shiba Inu accounts &lt;em&gt;&quot;chased a Russian diplomat offline&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Those accounts were NAFO, the &lt;em&gt;North Atlantic Fella Organization&lt;/em&gt;. It isn&apos;t an organisation; it&apos;s a swarm. It was born on 24 May 2022 from a drawing that a Pole, Kamil Dyszewski, gave to anyone who donated to the Georgian Legion fighting in Ukraine. By August, Ukraine&apos;s Ministry of Defence was thanking it publicly and Defence Minister Reznikov had switched his avatar to a dog. In 2023, Lithuania decorated its founder.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Six years earlier, in a building in St Petersburg, more than eighty people worked on a &quot;translator project&quot; aimed at the United States, inside an operation with a monthly budget of &lt;strong&gt;more than 73 million roubles (over $1.25 million)&lt;/strong&gt;. Its signature format was the meme too.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;These are two opposite ways of doing the same thing: fighting a war on a front that doesn&apos;t appear on any map. This piece is about that front.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;the-question-in-four-parts&quot;&gt;The question, in four parts&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&quot;Do memes work as weapons?&quot; is too big to answer in one go. We break it into four:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What exactly is memetic warfare, and who has written it down?&lt;/strong&gt; Doctrine, not folklore.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is it orchestrated?&lt;/strong&gt; Which structures, budgets and formats show up in the documented cases.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do you measure whether it worked?&lt;/strong&gt; Because volume isn&apos;t impact, and that&apos;s the main surprise here.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is it managed and shut down?&lt;/strong&gt; What the evidence says about detecting, containing, debunking and taking down.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;p&gt;One warning before we start: this is analysis, not a manual. We describe how the documented campaigns were organised and how they are detected and dismantled. We don&apos;t explain how to build a deception operation, because that isn&apos;t research.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;what-memetic-warfare-is&quot;&gt;What memetic warfare is&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The word &lt;em&gt;meme&lt;/em&gt; was coined by Richard Dawkins in &lt;em&gt;The Selfish Gene&lt;/em&gt; (1976), in the chapter &quot;Memes: the new replicators&quot;. He shortened the Greek &lt;em&gt;mimeme&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;imitated thing&quot;, so it would rhyme with &lt;em&gt;gene&lt;/em&gt;. His examples were tunes, catch-phrases, fashions and ways of building arches: units of culture that get copied, mutate and compete for attention the way genes compete to survive. The internet only changed the speed.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The jump into military writing came early and, at first, from the fringes:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2005–2006.&lt;/strong&gt; Major Michael B. Prosser of the US Marine Corps proposes, in &quot;Memetics — A Growth Industry in US Military Operations&quot;, a &lt;em&gt;Meme Warfare Center&lt;/em&gt; with a &quot;Meme Management Officer&quot; advising the commander on meme &quot;generation and transmission&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2010.&lt;/strong&gt; Lieutenant Brian J. Hancock publishes &quot;Memetic Warfare: The Future of War&quot; in the US Army&apos;s &lt;em&gt;Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2011.&lt;/strong&gt; DARPA launches &lt;strong&gt;SMISC&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;Social Media in Strategic Communication&lt;/em&gt;, solicitation dated 14 July 2011): an estimated &lt;strong&gt;$42 million&lt;/strong&gt; of basic research over three years. Its first goal, verbatim: &lt;em&gt;&quot;detect, classify, measure and track the formation, development and spread of ideas and concepts (memes)&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Its programme manager, Rand Waltzman, reckons it ended up costing about $50 million over four years.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2016.&lt;/strong&gt; Jeff Giesea publishes &quot;It&apos;s Time to Embrace Memetic Warfare&quot; in the journal of NATO&apos;s Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Trolling, it might be said, is the social media equivalent of guerrilla warfare, and memes are its currency of propaganda&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. It&apos;s an opinion essay, not doctrine. The Centre&apos;s website dates it 1 March 2016, though it is often cited as 2015.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The great powers don&apos;t write about memes, but they do write about the terrain memes live on:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Russia&lt;/strong&gt; says &lt;em&gt;informatsionnoye protivoborstvo&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;information confrontation&quot;, rather than &quot;war&quot;. In its Ministry of Defence&apos;s &lt;em&gt;Conceptual Views&lt;/em&gt; (2011), information war includes &quot;massive brainwashing of the population for destabilizing the society and the state&quot;. General Gerasimov&apos;s famous article (26 February 2013) says non-military means have &quot;in many cases exceeded the power of force of weapons&quot;. Be careful with the label, though. The &quot;Gerasimov doctrine&quot; was coined by analyst Mark Galeotti on his blog on 6 July 2014, and he retracted it himself in &lt;em&gt;Foreign Policy&lt;/em&gt; in 2018: &lt;em&gt;&quot;There&apos;s one small problem. It doesn&apos;t exist&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;China&lt;/strong&gt; set out its &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Three Warfares&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (public-opinion, psychological and legal warfare) in December 2003, in the People&apos;s Liberation Army&apos;s political work regulations.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NATO&lt;/strong&gt; commissioned a study on &lt;strong&gt;cognitive warfare&lt;/strong&gt; in 2020 (François du Cluzel, January 2021) that proposes treating the human as a sixth operational domain. Its most quoted line: &lt;em&gt;&quot;the individual becomes the weapon&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. NATO itself warns that the study doesn&apos;t express its official position, and the formal concept was still awaiting approval in late 2025.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The United States&lt;/strong&gt; made information the seventh joint function in 2017 and issued dedicated doctrine (JP 3-04) in September 2022, without publishing it. We found no official US doctrinal publication that uses the phrase &lt;em&gt;memetic warfare&lt;/em&gt;: memes only appear in research solicitations such as SMISC.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;NATO&apos;s Centre of Excellence has counted real memes. Its May 2016 report on the Ukraine conflict analysed Facebook and VKontakte from 31 December 2012 to 1 April 2014 and found 348 memes, almost six times as many on VKontakte. The per-network figures the report gives (52 and 289) add up to 341, not 348: a discrepancy in the original.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 470&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;470&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-t chart-mw-cronologia-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-t&quot;&gt;Timeline of memetic warfare from 2011 to 2024: state programmes, operations, and responses by platforms, the United Nations and the courts&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-d&quot;&gt;2011-07-14: DARPA SMISC: $42M to track memes; 2013-02-26: Gerasimov&apos;s article; 2015-03: ISIS: ≥46,000 Twitter accounts; 2016-03-01: Giesea at NATO: memetic warfare; 2016-09: IRA: &gt;$1.25M a month; 2018-09: UN: Facebook in Myanmar; 2019-08-19: Twitter: 936 accounts over Hong Kong; 2022-05-24: NAFO is born; 2022-09-27: Doppelganger exposed; 2023-08-29: Meta takes down Spamouflage; 2024-09-04: US: 32 domains seized&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;8&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;34&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Doctrine and state programmes&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;275.3&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;301.3&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Operations and movements&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;504.1&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;530.1&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Responses: platforms, UN, courts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M16,250 H848&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M46.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;46.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M98.4,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;98.4&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2012&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M150.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;150.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2013&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M202.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;202.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2014&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M254.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;254.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2015&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M306.4,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;306.4&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M358.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;358.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2017&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M410.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;410.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2018&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M462.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;462.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2019&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M514.4,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;514.4&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2020&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M566.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;566.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2021&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M618.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;618.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M670.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;670.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2023&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M722.4,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;722.4&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2024&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M774.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;774.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2025&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M826.5,246 V254&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;826.5&quot; y=&quot;264&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2026&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M74.1,250 V218&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;74.1&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M158.5,250 V282&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;158.5&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M264.9,250 V218&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;264.9&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M315,250 V282&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;315&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M343.2,250 V162&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;343.2&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M447.1,250 V218&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;447.1&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M495.2,250 V282&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;495.2&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M638.9,250 V218&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;638.9&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M656.8,250 V162&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;656.8&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M704.6,250 V282&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;704.6&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M757.6,250 V338&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;757.6&quot; cy=&quot;250&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;76.1&quot; y=&quot;180&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;188&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Jul 14, 2011&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;201&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;DARPA SMISC: $42M to&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;214&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;track memes&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;160.5&quot; y=&quot;284&quot; width=&quot;150.3&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;162.5&quot; y=&quot;292&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Feb 26, 2013&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;162.5&quot; y=&quot;305&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Gerasimov&apos;s article&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;266.9&quot; y=&quot;180&quot; width=&quot;165.7&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;188&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Mar 2015&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;201&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;ISIS: ≥46,000 Twitter&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;214&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;accounts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;317&quot; y=&quot;284&quot; width=&quot;119.5&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;292&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Mar 1, 2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;305&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Giesea at NATO:&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;318&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;memetic warfare&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;345.2&quot; y=&quot;137&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;347.2&quot; y=&quot;145&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Sep 2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;347.2&quot; y=&quot;158&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;IRA: &gt;$1.25M a month&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;449.1&quot; y=&quot;180&quot; width=&quot;119.5&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;188&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Sep 2018&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;201&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;UN: Facebook in&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;214&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Myanmar&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;497.2&quot; y=&quot;284&quot; width=&quot;165.7&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;292&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Aug 19, 2019&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;305&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Twitter: 936 accounts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;318&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;over Hong Kong&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;640.9&quot; y=&quot;193&quot; width=&quot;96.4&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;642.9&quot; y=&quot;201&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;May 24, 2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;642.9&quot; y=&quot;214&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;NAFO is born&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;658.8&quot; y=&quot;137&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;660.8&quot; y=&quot;145&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Sep 27, 2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;660.8&quot; y=&quot;158&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Doppelganger exposed&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;706.6&quot; y=&quot;284&quot; width=&quot;119.5&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;292&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Aug 29, 2023&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;305&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Meta takes down&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;318&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Spamouflage&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;589.9&quot; y=&quot;340&quot; width=&quot;165.7&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;753.6&quot; y=&quot;348&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Sep 4, 2024&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;753.6&quot; y=&quot;361&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;US: 32 domains seized&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 1. Fifteen years of memetic warfare. Blue: doctrine and state programmes; ink: operations and movements; grey: responses. Sources: DARPA, Gerasimov (VPK), Brookings, NATO StratCom COE, US v. IRA indictment, UN, Twitter, EU DisinfoLab, Meta and the US Department of Justice.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h2 id=&quot;how-its-orchestrated-three-documented-models&quot;&gt;How it&apos;s orchestrated: three documented models&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The publicly documented cases fit three models. We call them the &lt;strong&gt;factory&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;volume cannon&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;swarm&lt;/strong&gt;. They differ in four things: who decides, what it costs, how much it reaches real people and whether it can be attributed.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;the-factory-the-internet-research-agency&quot;&gt;The factory: the Internet Research Agency&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Special Counsel Mueller&apos;s indictment of St Petersburg&apos;s Internet Research Agency (IRA), dated 16 February 2018, is the best public document on how a meme factory works on the inside:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Budget.&lt;/strong&gt; By September 2016, &quot;Project Lakhta&quot; exceeded &lt;strong&gt;73 million roubles a month (over $1.25 million)&lt;/strong&gt;, including a million roubles in bonuses. Note that this budget covered the whole project, including Russian and other foreign audiences, not just the US.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Staff.&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;Hundreds&quot; of employees. By July 2016, &lt;strong&gt;more than 80&lt;/strong&gt; were assigned to the US-facing &quot;translator project&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Into the streets.&lt;/strong&gt; The operation went as far as organising real rallies on US soil. The @TEN_GOP account passed 100,000 followers.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;New Knowledge&apos;s analysis for the Senate Intelligence Committee (December 2018) put numbers on the format. The analysts reviewed about &lt;strong&gt;67,000 Facebook memes and more than 100,000 Instagram memes&lt;/strong&gt; by hand. Their verdict: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Memes are the propaganda of the digital age&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Much of the material was recycled popular memes, and the most visual network delivered the most:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 288&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;288&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-t chart-mw-ira-engagement-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-t&quot;&gt;Engagements with IRA content from 2015 to 2017: 187.3 million on Instagram, 76.5 million on Facebook and about 73 million on original Twitter content&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-d&quot;&gt;Instagram: 187; Facebook: 77; Twitter: 73&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M85.3,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;0&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M263,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;263&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;50&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M440.7,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;440.7&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;100&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M618.4,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;618.4&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;150&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M796.1,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;796.1&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;200&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;440.7&quot; y=&quot;276&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Engagements with IRA content, 2015–2017 (millions)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;36&quot; width=&quot;665.7&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;757&quot; y=&quot;47&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;187.3 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;34&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Instagram&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;47&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;116,000&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;60&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;posts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;114&quot; width=&quot;271.9&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;363.2&quot; y=&quot;125&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;76.5 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;112&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Facebook&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;125&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;61,500&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;138&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;posts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;192&quot; width=&quot;259.4&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;350.7&quot; y=&quot;203&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;73.0 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;190&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Twitter&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;203&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;3,841&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;216&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;accounts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M85.3,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 2. Instagram, the image network, delivered more than twice Facebook&apos;s engagement. Source: New Knowledge, &quot;The Tactics &amp;#x26; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency&quot; (17 Dec 2018), based on data supplied by the platforms themselves.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;p&gt;The most-quoted reach figure, that &lt;strong&gt;126 million&lt;/strong&gt; Facebook users &quot;may have been served&quot; IRA content, is the company&apos;s own (Colin Stretch before the Senate, 31 October 2017). The direct figure was 29 million. Twitter identified &lt;strong&gt;3,841 accounts&lt;/strong&gt; linked to the IRA. The Senate report (volume 2, October 2019) highlights something else: the most targeted group was African-Americans, and the fake &lt;em&gt;Blacktivist&lt;/em&gt; page racked up 11.2 million engagements. After election day, IRA activity &lt;em&gt;rose&lt;/em&gt;, by 238% on Instagram.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;the-factory-20-doppelganger&quot;&gt;The factory 2.0: Doppelganger&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In September 2022, EU DisinfoLab and Qurium documented &lt;strong&gt;Doppelganger&lt;/strong&gt;: clones of at least &lt;strong&gt;17 European media outlets&lt;/strong&gt; (Bild, The Guardian, 20 Minutes, Ansa…) on look-alike domains, pushed with Facebook Pages and fake profiles. Two years later, on 4 September 2024, the US Department of Justice seized &lt;strong&gt;32 domains&lt;/strong&gt;. It attributed the operation to the firms Social Design Agency and Structura, working under Russia&apos;s Presidential Administration.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The FBI affidavit is explicit about the role of memes. Its &quot;Good Old U.S.A. Project&quot; planned &quot;mass distribution of text comments and &lt;strong&gt;memes&lt;/strong&gt; in Facebook and X discussion threads&quot;, with messages for six swing states. One planning document set a target of &lt;strong&gt;60,000 comments a month&lt;/strong&gt; for France and Germany, and the agency kept a list of &lt;strong&gt;more than 2,800 influencers&lt;/strong&gt; in 81 countries. The factory no longer manufactures only content. It manufactures conversation around the content.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;the-volume-cannon-spamouflage&quot;&gt;The volume cannon: Spamouflage&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Chinese operation known as &lt;strong&gt;Spamouflage&lt;/strong&gt; (Dragonbridge at Google) is the perfect counter-example. In August 2023, Meta removed &lt;strong&gt;7,704 Facebook accounts, 954 Pages, 15 Groups and 15 Instagram accounts&lt;/strong&gt;, with a presence on more than 50 platforms. Ben Nimmo, then Meta&apos;s head of threat intelligence, called it &lt;em&gt;&quot;the largest, though unsuccessful, and most prolific covert influence operation that we know of&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Note the word &lt;em&gt;unsuccessful&lt;/em&gt;. Meta found no &quot;substantial engagement among authentic communities&quot;. Google, which chases it on YouTube, gives starker numbers. Of the &lt;strong&gt;more than 57,000 channels&lt;/strong&gt; it disabled in 2023, &lt;strong&gt;80% had zero subscribers&lt;/strong&gt;. Of the more than 900,000 videos removed, 65% had fewer than 100 views and &lt;strong&gt;30% had none&lt;/strong&gt;. It&apos;s a cannon firing into a desert.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;the-swarm-nafo-saint-javelin-and-the-ghost-of-kyiv&quot;&gt;The swarm: NAFO, Saint Javelin and the Ghost of Kyiv&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The third model has no headquarters and no budget. NAFO is a decentralised network with a shared look (the &quot;fella&quot; dog), a clear goal (ridiculing Kremlin propaganda) and a funding route: the avatars were rewards for donors. Its founder estimates they raised &quot;more than $1 million&quot;, although nobody keeps an official tally. &lt;strong&gt;Saint Javelin&lt;/strong&gt;, a Toronto sticker shop selling a Madonna holding a missile launcher, started on 16 February 2022 aiming to raise $30,000. By September 2025 it said it had passed $2.5 million. Both figures come from the organisers themselves.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The swarm also manufactures myths. The &lt;strong&gt;Ghost of Kyiv&lt;/strong&gt;, a pilot said to have downed dozens of Russian jets in the first days of the invasion, spread across every network. On 30 April 2022, Ukraine&apos;s own Air Force called it &quot;a superhero legend created by the Ukrainians&quot;, a collective symbol of its pilots. It worked for morale and for fundraising. Technically, it was also friendly disinformation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;the-three-models-in-one-table&quot;&gt;The three models in one table&lt;/h3&gt;













































&lt;div class=&quot;table-wrap&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; role=&quot;region&quot; aria-label=&quot;Table&quot;&gt;&lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Model&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Case&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Who decides&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Documented scale&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Authentic reach&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Attribution&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Factory&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;IRA (2014–2018)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Hierarchy with a budget&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&gt;80 people on the US; &gt;$1.25M/month&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;High: 187M engagements on Instagram&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Criminal indictment, 2018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Factory 2.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Doppelganger (2022–2024)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Contractors of the Presidential Administration&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17 cloned outlets; plan for 60,000 comments/month&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Low, according to the platforms&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;32 domains seized, 2024&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Volume cannon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Spamouflage (2019–)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Linked to Chinese law enforcement (Meta)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,704 FB accounts; &gt;175,000 disruptions at Google&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Near zero: 80% of channels with no subscribers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Platform attribution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Swarm&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;NAFO (2022–)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Nobody: coordination through a look and a goal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&gt;$1M, self-reported&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;High in its niche; never rigorously measured&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Public and proud&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The table&apos;s lesson is awkward for anyone who thinks in budgets: &lt;strong&gt;volume doesn&apos;t buy reach&lt;/strong&gt;. The factory that worked did so because it exploited real fractures (race, identity) in the right format (images, Instagram). The biggest cannon we know of had almost no audience.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;when-the-platform-is-the-weapon-myanmar&quot;&gt;When the platform is the weapon: Myanmar&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In one case nobody needed a factory. The UN Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (report A/HRC/39/64, September 2018) wrote that Facebook &quot;has been a useful instrument for those seeking to spread hate, in a context where for most users Facebook is the Internet&quot;, and that the company&apos;s response had been &quot;slow and ineffective&quot;. Nearly &lt;strong&gt;725,000&lt;/strong&gt; Rohingya fled the country after August 2017. The report Facebook itself commissioned from BSR (November 2018) admitted it: &lt;em&gt;&quot;we weren&apos;t doing enough&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Sometimes the parallel front isn&apos;t opened by an army but by an unmoderated ecosystem.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;and-the-caliphate-isis-on-twitter&quot;&gt;And the caliphate: ISIS on Twitter&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Before anyone else, the Islamic State understood the network as a front. Berger and Morgan&apos;s census for Brookings (March 2015) counted &lt;strong&gt;at least 46,000&lt;/strong&gt; supporter accounts between September and December 2014, with an upper bound of about 70,000. Each had about a thousand followers on average, and a core of &lt;strong&gt;500 to 2,000 hyperactive accounts&lt;/strong&gt; drove most of the reach. Three in four wrote in Arabic.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;why-they-spread&quot;&gt;Why they spread&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Why the IRA&apos;s factory delivered and the Chinese cannon didn&apos;t comes down to three solid findings in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Falsehood travels further, and not because of bots.&lt;/strong&gt; Vosoughi, Roy and Aral analysed in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (2018) some &lt;strong&gt;126,000 stories&lt;/strong&gt; spread by about 3 million people on Twitter between 2006 and 2017. Falsehoods were &lt;strong&gt;70% more likely to be retweeted&lt;/strong&gt; than the truth. It took the truth about &lt;strong&gt;six times as long&lt;/strong&gt; to reach 1,500 people. The key point is that bots accelerated true and false news at the same rate: falsehood spreads further &lt;em&gt;&quot;because humans, not robots, are more likely to spread it&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. The authors point to novelty, and to the surprise or disgust it provokes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moral emotion is fuel.&lt;/strong&gt; Brady and colleagues (&lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt;, 2017) studied 563,312 messages on polarised issues. Each additional &lt;strong&gt;moral-emotional&lt;/strong&gt; word increased a message&apos;s diffusion by about &lt;strong&gt;20%&lt;/strong&gt;, and the effect was stronger within each ideological bubble than between them. A well-made war meme is exactly that: moral outrage compressed into an image.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Memes are born on the fringes and then jump.&lt;/strong&gt; Zannettou and colleagues (IMC 2018) tracked about &lt;strong&gt;160 million images&lt;/strong&gt; across Twitter, Reddit, 4chan&apos;s /pol/ and Gab over thirteen months in 2016–2017. They used perceptual hashing, a 64-bit fingerprint that survives crops and edits. /pol/ was the biggest meme factory (1.57 million posts), but The_Donald was the most &lt;em&gt;efficient&lt;/em&gt; community at pushing memes out to the rest. The seeding happens in small, radical niches; the harvest, on the big platforms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;how-impact-is-measured&quot;&gt;How impact is measured&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;If volume isn&apos;t impact, you need another yardstick. The one analysts and platforms use most is Ben Nimmo&apos;s &lt;strong&gt;Breakout Scale&lt;/strong&gt; (Brookings, September 2020). It doesn&apos;t count how many messages are posted. It measures &lt;strong&gt;how far a campaign breaks out of its niche&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--flow&quot; viewBox=&quot;2 2 393.8 648&quot; width=&quot;394&quot; height=&quot;648&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-en-t fig-mw-breakout-en-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 394px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-en-t&quot;&gt;Ben Nimmo&apos;s Breakout Scale in six categories, from one community on one platform to a policy response or a call to violence&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-en-d&quot;&gt;1 · one community on one platform → 2 · one community on several platforms or several communities on one; 2 · one community on several platforms or several communities on one → 3 · several platforms and several communities; 3 · several platforms and several communities → 4 · breaks into mainstream media (leaves social media); 4 · breaks into mainstream media → 5 · amplified by celebrities or candidates; 5 · amplified by celebrities or candidates → 6 · policy response, concrete action or call to violence&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;defs&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow-accent&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow fig-accent-fill&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;/defs&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M198.9,68 L198.9,87 Q198.9,95 198.9,103 L198.9,122&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M198.9,178 L198.9,197 Q198.9,205 198.9,213 L198.9,232&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M198.9,288 L198.9,318 Q198.9,326 198.9,334 L198.9,364&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;107.5&quot; y=&quot;315&quot; width=&quot;182.9&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;326&quot;&gt;leaves social media&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M198.9,420 L198.9,439 Q198.9,447 198.9,455 L198.9,474&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M198.9,530 L198.9,549 Q198.9,557 198.9,565 L198.9,584&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-en-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;107.6&quot; y=&quot;12&quot; width=&quot;182.7&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;31&quot;&gt;1 · one community&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;49&quot;&gt;on one platform&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;12&quot; y=&quot;122&quot; width=&quot;373.8&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;141&quot;&gt;2 · one community on several platforms&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;159&quot;&gt;or several communities on one&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;80.3&quot; y=&quot;232&quot; width=&quot;237.3&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;251&quot;&gt;3 · several platforms&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;269&quot;&gt;and several communities&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;112.1&quot; y=&quot;364&quot; width=&quot;173.6&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;383&quot;&gt;4 · breaks into&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;401&quot;&gt;mainstream media&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;57.5&quot; y=&quot;474&quot; width=&quot;282.8&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;493&quot;&gt;5 · amplified by celebrities&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;511&quot;&gt;or candidates&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;polygon class=&quot;fig-node&quot; points=&quot;53,584 344.8,584 361.7,612 344.8,640 53,640 36.2,612&quot;&gt;&lt;/polygon&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;198.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;603&quot;&gt;6 · policy response, concrete&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;198.9&quot; y=&quot;621&quot;&gt;action or call to violence&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 3. Ben Nimmo&apos;s Breakout Scale. Each step means escaping one more audience: a community, a platform, social media and, finally, the screen. Source: Brookings, September 2020.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;p&gt;By this yardstick, the big fear of recent years, generative AI, stays in proportion for now. In May 2024, OpenAI disclosed five operations that used its models: Bad Grammar and Doppelganger (Russia), Spamouflage (China), IUVM (Iran) and Zero Zeno, run by a commercial firm in Israel. &lt;strong&gt;None scored above Category 2&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;&quot;no breakout to authentic audiences&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. By October 2025 the running total had passed 40 networks disrupted since February 2024. Its conclusion: actors bolt AI onto workflows they already had rather than invent new ones. Microsoft (April 2024) points the same way: AI-&lt;strong&gt;enhanced&lt;/strong&gt; content is more influential than fully AI-generated content, and fake audio more than fake video.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;A methodological caveat: these &quot;limited impact&quot; assessments come from the platforms themselves, about what they find. What they don&apos;t find never makes the statistics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;how-its-detected&quot;&gt;How it&apos;s detected&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Platforms don&apos;t take these networks down for what they say, but for &lt;strong&gt;how they behave&lt;/strong&gt;. Meta calls it &lt;em&gt;Coordinated Inauthentic Behavior&lt;/em&gt; (CIB): &quot;coordinated efforts to manipulate public debate for a strategic goal, in which fake accounts are central to the operation&quot;. It has published its takedowns since 2017. By December 2022 it had removed &lt;strong&gt;more than 200 networks&lt;/strong&gt; from 68 countries, and the ranking of origins is stable: Russia (39 networks by August 2024), Iran (about 30) and China (11).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The reference academic method is Pacheco and colleagues&apos; (ICWSM 2021). You pick a behavioural trace, build an account-to-trace network and project it onto the accounts: two accounts are linked if they share too many traces. Finally, an analyst reviews the groups by hand. Its strength is that it detects &lt;strong&gt;coordination, not automation&lt;/strong&gt;, so it catches human-run operations that a bot detector misses. Those detectors fail a lot, by the way: Rauchfleisch and Kaiser (&lt;em&gt;PLOS ONE&lt;/em&gt;, 2020) showed that Botometer labels many humans as bots and vice versa, especially outside English.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For memes, the natural trace is the image&apos;s &lt;strong&gt;perceptual hash&lt;/strong&gt;, the same one Zannettou and colleagues used. This is the core of the method in dependency-free Python with synthetic data: 60 organic accounts post random memes over a week, and a network of 6 accounts posts five waves of the same meme within 40 seconds.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;code-block&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;code-head&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;label&quot;&gt;python&lt;/span&gt;&lt;button class=&quot;code-copy&quot; type=&quot;button&quot; data-done=&quot;Copied&quot;&gt;Copy&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;pre class=&quot;astro-code qa-tokens&quot; style=&quot;background-color:var(--shiki-background);color:var(--shiki-foreground); overflow-x: auto;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; data-language=&quot;python&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;Detecting coordinated behaviour through co-posting (synthetic data, standard library only).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;Idea (Pacheco et al., ICWSM 2021): two accounts that post the same content, again and again,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;seconds apart, rarely do so by chance. Count how often each pair coincides within a window,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;keep the pairs above a threshold and group them.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; random&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;from&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; collections &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;random&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;seed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;WINDOW &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;     # seconds: two posts of the same meme closer than this &quot;coincide&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;THRESHOLD &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;   # minimum coincidences to call a pair of accounts coordinated&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- Synthetic data: (account, perceptual hash of the meme, second it was posted) ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;events &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; []&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;memes &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;:02d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; i &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; c &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;                                   # 60 organic accounts&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; _ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;12&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        events&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;user_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;:02d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;choice&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(memes), random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; *&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 86400&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;network &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;net_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; c &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;]              &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# 6 accounts in a coordinated network&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; wave&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; enumerate&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;([&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_03&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_11&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_17&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_22&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_29&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    t0 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 86400&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; *&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (wave &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; account &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; network&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        events&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((account, meme, t0 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;   # all within 40 s&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- 1. Coincidences per pair: same meme inside the window ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;by_meme &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;list&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; account&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; events&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    by_meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((t, account))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;pairs &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;int&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; posts &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; by_meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;items&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;():&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    posts&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sort&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;()&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (t1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; a) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; enumerate&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(posts):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;        for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; posts&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;i &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:]:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;            if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t2 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;-&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t1 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; WINDOW&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;                break&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;            if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; a &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;!=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;                pairs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;tuple&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((a, b)))]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; +=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- 2. Pairs above the threshold → groups (union-find) ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;parent &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; {}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; root&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-parameter)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;setdefault&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(x, x)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    while&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; !=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        x &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    return&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; pairs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;items&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;():&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; THRESHOLD&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;root&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(a)]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; root&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(b)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;groups &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;set&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; account &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; parent&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    groups&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;root&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(account)].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;add&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(account)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;events: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(events)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; · accounts: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;({e[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; e &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; events})&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; · pairs that ever coincide: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(pairs)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;pairs with &gt;= &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;THRESHOLD&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; coincidences within &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;WINDOW&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; s: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; pairs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;() &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; THRESHOLD)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; g &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(groups.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(), key&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, reverse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;True&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;    print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;coordinated group (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(g)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; accounts): &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&apos;, &apos;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;join&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(g))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Expected output:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;code-block&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;code-head&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;label&quot;&gt;text&lt;/span&gt;&lt;button class=&quot;code-copy&quot; type=&quot;button&quot; data-done=&quot;Copied&quot;&gt;Copy&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;pre class=&quot;astro-code qa-tokens&quot; style=&quot;background-color:var(--shiki-background);color:var(--shiki-foreground); overflow-x: auto;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; data-language=&quot;text&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;events: 497 · accounts: 66 · pairs that ever coincide: 17&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;pairs with &gt;= 3 coincidences within 60 s: 15&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;coordinated group (6 accounts): net_0, net_1, net_2, net_3, net_4, net_5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Of 17 pairs that ever coincide, only 15 do so three times or more, and they are exactly the 15 possible pairs among the network&apos;s 6 accounts. Chance coincidences between organic users stay below the threshold. Real data is never this clean: you have to calibrate the window and threshold, down-weight very popular memes (which coincide through sheer virality) and review every group by hand before calling it a network. But this is the logic behind platform takedowns: &lt;strong&gt;the content can be legitimate; the choreography can&apos;t&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;how-its-managed-and-shut-down&quot;&gt;How it&apos;s managed and shut down&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Detecting isn&apos;t responding. On the available evidence, the response takes the shape of a loop, and the first decision is the most counter-intuitive:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--flow&quot; viewBox=&quot;2 2 935.7 701.6&quot; width=&quot;936&quot; height=&quot;702&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-en-t fig-mw-respuesta-en-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 936px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-en-t&quot;&gt;Response loop for a memetic campaign: detect coordination, measure breakout and, depending on whether it left its niche, don&apos;t amplify, prebunk, expose and attribute, or take the network down, then measure the effect&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-en-d&quot;&gt;signal: a meme accelerates → detect coordination behavior, not content; detect coordination behavior, not content → measure breakout category 1–6; measure breakout category 1–6 → did it leave its niche?; did it leave its niche? → don&apos;t amplify, keep watching (no); did it leave its niche? → prebunking and context notes (yes); did it leave its niche? → expose and attribute with public evidence (yes); did it leave its niche? → take the network down and sanction (yes, and coordinated); don&apos;t amplify, keep watching → measure the effect reach before and after; prebunking and context notes → measure the effect reach before and after; expose and attribute with public evidence → measure the effect reach before and after; take the network down and sanction → measure the effect reach before and after; measure the effect reach before and after → detect coordination behavior, not content (next cycle)&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;defs&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-en-arrow&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-en-arrow-accent&quot; 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x=&quot;249.2&quot; y=&quot;122&quot; width=&quot;219.1&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;358.7&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;358.7&quot; y=&quot;141&quot;&gt;detect coordination&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;358.7&quot; y=&quot;159&quot;&gt;behavior, not content&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;457&quot; y=&quot;232&quot; width=&quot;173.6&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;543.8&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;543.8&quot; y=&quot;251&quot;&gt;measure breakout&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;543.8&quot; y=&quot;269&quot;&gt;category 1–6&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;polygon class=&quot;fig-node&quot; points=&quot;543.8,342 647.2,389.8 543.8,437.6 440.3,389.8&quot;&gt;&lt;/polygon&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;543.8&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;543.8&quot; y=&quot;380.8&quot;&gt;did it leave&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;543.8&quot; y=&quot;398.8&quot;&gt;its niche?&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;772.3&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;155.4&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;850&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;850&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;don&apos;t amplify,&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;850&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;keep watching&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;563.6&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;182.7&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;655&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;655&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;prebunking&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;655&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;and context notes&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;327.6&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;432.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;432.6&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;expose and attribute&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;432.6&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;with public evidence&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;82.5&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;219.1&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;192&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;192&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;take the network down&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;192&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;and sanction&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-node&quot; d=&quot;M340.7,629.6 A114.1,6 0 0 1 568.9,629.6 V687.6 A114.1,6 0 0 1 340.7,687.6 Z&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-node-line&quot; d=&quot;M340.7,629.6 A114.1,6 0 0 0 568.9,629.6&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;454.8&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;454.8&quot; y=&quot;653.6&quot;&gt;measure the effect&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;454.8&quot; y=&quot;671.6&quot;&gt;reach before and after&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 4. The response loop. If a campaign hasn&apos;t left its niche (Category 1–2), debunking it in public may be exactly what breaks it out. Our own diagram, based on the Breakout Scale (Nimmo, 2020) and the evidence cited in this section.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h3 id=&quot;before-inoculate&quot;&gt;Before: inoculate&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychological inoculation&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;prebunking&lt;/em&gt;, teaches the manipulation technique before the specific message arrives. Roozenbeek, van der Linden and colleagues (&lt;em&gt;Science Advances&lt;/em&gt;, 2022) tested it in the lab and on YouTube. In the field, 5.4 million US users saw the ads and 22,632 answered a test question. Recognition of techniques such as scapegoating and false dichotomies improved by about &lt;strong&gt;5%&lt;/strong&gt;. That&apos;s little per person but a lot at scale, since it costs the price of an ad.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Google Jigsaw took the idea to Poland, Czechia and Slovakia in autumn 2022, against hoaxes about Ukrainian refugees. Its videos passed 38 million views, but the effect was &lt;strong&gt;uneven&lt;/strong&gt;: largest in Poland, mixed in Czechia and close to zero in Slovakia, where the videos were dubbed rather than produced locally. The vaccine works best with a local accent.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;during-answer-fast-and-with-wit&quot;&gt;During: answer fast, and with wit&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Taiwan turned this into state policy under the motto &lt;strong&gt;&quot;humor over rumor&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. In February 2020 the Premier answered a hoax that was causing panic-buying of toilet paper with a meme. The operating rule attributed to the government, the &lt;strong&gt;&quot;2-2-2&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, exists in several public versions: 20 minutes or 2 hours to respond, 200 words and 2 images. We found no official document fixing the exact version. What stays constant is the idea: speed, brevity and an image, the same weapons as the meme being answered.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Debunking doesn&apos;t backfire.&lt;/strong&gt; The feared &quot;backfire effect&quot; (a correction that strengthens the false belief) is rare. Wood and Porter (&lt;em&gt;Political Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 2019) ran 5 experiments with more than 10,100 people on 52 issues: &lt;strong&gt;no correction produced a backfire&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context notes work, but they arrive late.&lt;/strong&gt; X&apos;s &lt;em&gt;Community Notes&lt;/em&gt; are the largest natural experiment. On the specific post the effect is strong; across the platform it&apos;s modest, because the note appears after the viral moment has passed:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 360&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;360&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-t chart-mw-community-notes-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-t&quot;&gt;Reach reduction from Community Notes on X: 46.1% fewer reposts after the note versus 11.6% over the post&apos;s whole life, and 61.2% less spread versus a 14.9% total effect&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-d&quot;&gt;Reposts (Slaughter et al., 2025): 46.1 % / 11.6 %; Spread (Chuai et al., 2026): 61.2 % / 14.9 %&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;8&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;34&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;From the moment the note appears&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;298.4&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;324.4&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Over the post&apos;s whole life&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,332 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;332&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;0 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,291.1 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;291.1&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;10 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,250.3 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;250.3&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;20 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,209.4 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;209.4&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;30 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,168.6 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;168.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;40 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,127.7 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;127.7&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;50 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,86.9 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;86.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;60 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,46 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;46&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;70 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,332 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;10&quot; y=&quot;189&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot; transform=&quot;rotate(-90 10 189)&quot;&gt;Reduction (%)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;204.1&quot; y=&quot;143.6&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;188.4&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;231.1&quot; y=&quot;134.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;46.1 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;260.1&quot; y=&quot;284.6&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;47.4&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;287.1&quot; y=&quot;275.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;11.6 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;259.1&quot; y=&quot;344&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Reposts (Slaughter et al., 2025)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;600.7&quot; y=&quot;82&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;250&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;627.7&quot; y=&quot;73&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;61.2 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;656.7&quot; y=&quot;271.1&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;60.9&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;683.7&quot; y=&quot;262.1&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;14.9 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;655.7&quot; y=&quot;344&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Spread (Chuai et al., 2026)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 5. The effect of a context note from the moment it appears versus over the post&apos;s whole life. Sources: Slaughter, Peytavin, Ugander and Saveski (PNAS, September 2025; 40,078 posts) and Chuai et al. (Nature Communications, accepted 2026; 237,180 cascades).&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h3 id=&quot;after-take-down-and-watch-where-they-go&quot;&gt;After: take down, and watch where they go&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Network takedowns&lt;/strong&gt; (CIB) are the platforms&apos; bluntest tool and the one that leaves the clearest public record. In 2018 Twitter opened an archive of state-backed operations with the IRA&apos;s 3,841 accounts and 770 from Iran. By 2019 it held more than 30 million tweets.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Removing people&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;deplatforming&lt;/em&gt;) has stronger evidence behind it than is often assumed, with one caveat:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;McCabe and colleagues (&lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;, 2024) studied the removal of &lt;strong&gt;70,000&lt;/strong&gt; misinformation-spreading accounts after 6 January 2021, using a panel of more than 500,000 users. Misinformation circulation fell, both from the banned accounts and from their followers. The authors can&apos;t isolate the exact size of the effect, because it coincided with the storming of the Capitol.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Jhaver and colleagues (2021) measured, across 49 million tweets, the removal of Alex Jones, Milo Yiannopoulos and Owen Benjamin: conversation about them dropped sharply, and so did their supporters&apos; toxicity.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The caveat: those who migrate to a platform of their own lose audience but can radicalise. Horta Ribeiro and colleagues (2021) saw it with r/The_Donald.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;above-it-all-rules-and-the-state&quot;&gt;Above it all: rules and the state&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The European Union.&lt;/strong&gt; Since &lt;strong&gt;25 August 2023&lt;/strong&gt;, the Digital Services Act has required the largest platforms to assess and mitigate systemic risks to civic discourse. Its first formal proceedings were opened against X on 18 December 2023, after the wave of disinformation about the Israel–Hamas war; the maximum fine is 6% of global turnover. The Code of Practice on Disinformation became a code of conduct under the Act on 1 July 2025.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Measured attacks.&lt;/strong&gt; The EUvsDisinfo database holds more than 18,000 cases. The European External Action Service&apos;s reports on foreign manipulation counted 100 incidents in 2022 (Russia in 88), 750 in 2023 and 505 in 2024.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sanctions.&lt;/strong&gt; The EU suspended RT and Sputnik on 1 March 2022. The US paired the Doppelganger domain seizures with sanctions on 10 individuals and 2 entities the same day.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And defences get switched off too.&lt;/strong&gt; The State Department&apos;s Global Engagement Center, the US office for countering foreign propaganda, closed on 23 December 2024. Its successor, R/FIMI, was shut on 16 April 2025. Shutting down a memetic war also depends on someone still being willing to fight it.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;and-counter-messaging-in-uniform&quot;&gt;And counter-messaging in uniform&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The British Army has a unit for this, the &lt;strong&gt;77th Brigade&lt;/strong&gt;, which describes itself as a hybrid unit to &quot;combat new forms of warfare in the information environment&quot;. Freedom of Information requests revealed that it monitored disinformation trends on UK social media during COVID. It&apos;s a reminder that defensive tools can also point inwards.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;method-note-what-this-is-and-what-it-isnt&quot;&gt;Method note: what this is and what it isn&apos;t&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It is&lt;/strong&gt; a synthesis of primary sources: court documents, platform reports, parliamentary and UN reports, and peer-reviewed papers. Every figure comes with its source.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It isn&apos;t&lt;/strong&gt; our own measurement of impact. Most reach figures come &lt;strong&gt;from the platforms themselves&lt;/strong&gt; (Meta, Google, Twitter/X, OpenAI), and the independent analyses, such as New Knowledge&apos;s, worked on data those same platforms supplied. What they don&apos;t detect doesn&apos;t show up.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It isn&apos;t&lt;/strong&gt; a manual. We describe how the documented campaigns were organised and how they are detected. We give no instructions for creating fake profiles or evading detection.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Some &lt;strong&gt;figures are self-reported&lt;/strong&gt; and we couldn&apos;t audit them (what NAFO and Saint Javelin raised), and some &lt;strong&gt;rules have no official document&lt;/strong&gt; (Taiwan&apos;s &quot;2-2-2&quot;). We say so where they appear.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The code is a teaching example with synthetic data, not a production-ready detector.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;what-we-take-away&quot;&gt;What we take away&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Volume doesn&apos;t buy reach.&lt;/strong&gt; The biggest operation we know of, Spamouflage, barely had an audience. The one that worked, the IRA, exploited real fractures in the right format. Measure breakout (Categories 1–6), not messages.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;People push memes, not bots.&lt;/strong&gt; Falsehood travels 70% further on novelty and moral emotion, and bots don&apos;t change that. Defence has to speak to people.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;You detect the choreography, not the opinion.&lt;/strong&gt; Takedowns that hold up are based on coordinated behaviour, not on content. That&apos;s what makes them defensible in a democracy.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Speed decides the shutdown.&lt;/strong&gt; Inoculate early (prebunking), answer fast and with wit, annotate early and take the network down. A note that arrives late cuts 46% of what&apos;s left, but only 12% of the total.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;sources-and-links&quot;&gt;Sources and links&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Doctrine and history&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Dawkins, R. (1976). &lt;em&gt;The Selfish Gene&lt;/em&gt;, ch. 11, &quot;Memes: the new replicators&quot;. Oxford University Press.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Hancock, B. J. (2010). &quot;Memetic Warfare: The Future of War&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; 36(2). &lt;a href=&quot;https://irp.fas.org/agency/army/mipb/2010_02.pdf&quot;&gt;irp.fas.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;DARPA (2011). &lt;em&gt;Social Media in Strategic Communication&lt;/em&gt; (DARPA-BAA-11-64). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/social-media-in-strategic-communication&quot;&gt;darpa.mil&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Giesea, J. (2016). &quot;It&apos;s Time to Embrace Memetic Warfare&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Defence Strategic Communications&lt;/em&gt; 1. NATO StratCom COE. &lt;a href=&quot;https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/its-time-to-embrace-memetic-warfare/164&quot;&gt;stratcomcoe.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Galeotti, M. (2018). &quot;I&apos;m Sorry for Creating the &apos;Gerasimov Doctrine&apos;&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Foreign Policy&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/03/05/im-sorry-for-creating-the-gerasimov-doctrine/&quot;&gt;foreignpolicy.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Russian Ministry of Defence (2011). &lt;em&gt;Conceptual Views Regarding the Activities of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation in the Information Space&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/5017678/Russian-Government-Conceptual-Views-Regarding.pdf&quot;&gt;nsarchive.gwu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;du Cluzel, F. (2021). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Warfare&lt;/em&gt;. NATO ACT Innovation Hub. &lt;a href=&quot;https://innovationhub-act.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/20210122_CW-Final.pdf&quot;&gt;innovationhub-act.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;NATO StratCom COE (2016). &lt;em&gt;Framing of the Ukraine–Russia Conflict in Online and Social Media&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://stratcomcoe.org/cuploads/pfiles/ukr_social_media_full_report-2.pdf&quot;&gt;stratcomcoe.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cases&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;United States v. Internet Research Agency et al.&lt;/em&gt; (2018), indictment. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov/archives/sco/file/1035477/dl&quot;&gt;justice.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;New Knowledge (2018). &lt;em&gt;The Tactics &amp;#x26; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://law.shu.edu/documents/newknowledge-irareport.pdf&quot;&gt;law.shu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;EU DisinfoLab and Qurium (2022). &lt;em&gt;Doppelganger&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/semon9-giki0/2022-09-27-EUDisinfoLab-Qurium-Doppelganger.pdf&quot;&gt;nsarchive.gwu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;US Department of Justice (2024). Doppelganger affidavit. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov/d9/2024-09/doppelganger_affidavit_9.4.24.pdf&quot;&gt;justice.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Google TAG (2024). Dragonbridge. &lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.google/threat-analysis-group/google-disrupted-dragonbridge-activity-q1-2024/&quot;&gt;blog.google&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (2018). A/HRC/39/64. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1441760/1930_1535440161_a-hrc-39-64.pdf&quot;&gt;ecoi.net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Berger, J. M. and Morgan, J. (2015). &lt;em&gt;The ISIS Twitter Census&lt;/em&gt;. Brookings. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/isis_twitter_census_berger_morgan.pdf&quot;&gt;brookings.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Kyiv Post (2023). Interview with NAFO&apos;s founder. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kyivpost.com/russias-war/founder-of-nafo-reveals-identity-discusses-raison-detre.html&quot;&gt;kyivpost.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mechanics, measurement and detection&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Vosoughi, S., Roy, D. and Aral, S. (2018). &quot;The spread of true and false news online&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 359(6380). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559&quot;&gt;doi:10.1126/science.aap9559&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Brady, W. J. et al. (2017). &quot;Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks&quot;. &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; 114(28). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114&quot;&gt;doi:10.1073/pnas.1618923114&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Zannettou, S. et al. (2018). &quot;On the Origins of Memes by Means of Fringe Web Communities&quot;. IMC. &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1805.12512&quot;&gt;arxiv.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Nimmo, B. (2020). &quot;The Breakout Scale&quot;. Brookings. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-breakout-scale-measuring-the-impact-of-influence-operations/&quot;&gt;brookings.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Pacheco, D. et al. (2021). &quot;Uncovering Coordinated Networks on Social Media&quot;. ICWSM. &lt;a href=&quot;https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/18075&quot;&gt;ojs.aaai.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Rauchfleisch, A. and Kaiser, J. (2020). &quot;The False Positive Problem of Automatic Bot Detection in Social Science Research&quot;. &lt;em&gt;PLOS ONE&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241045&quot;&gt;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241045&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;OpenAI (2024). &lt;em&gt;AI and Covert Influence Operations: Latest Trends&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://openai.com/index/disrupting-deceptive-uses-of-ai-by-covert-influence-operations/&quot;&gt;openai.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;DISARM Foundation. An open framework for describing influence operations. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.disarm.foundation/faqs&quot;&gt;disarm.foundation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Response&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Roozenbeek, J. et al. (2022). &quot;Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Science Advances&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/inoculateexperiment&quot;&gt;cam.ac.uk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Wood, T. and Porter, E. (2019). &quot;The Elusive Backfire Effect&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Political Behavior&lt;/em&gt; 41. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y&quot;&gt;doi:10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Slaughter, I. et al. (2025). The effect of Community Notes. &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12478135/&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;McCabe, S. D. et al. (2024). &quot;Post-January 6th deplatforming reduced the reach of misinformation on Twitter&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 630. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07524-8&quot;&gt;doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07524-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Jhaver, S. et al. (2021). &quot;Evaluating the Effectiveness of Deplatforming as a Moderation Strategy on Twitter&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Proc. ACM HCI&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/3479525&quot;&gt;doi:10.1145/3479525&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;European Commission. Code of Practice on Disinformation. &lt;a href=&quot;https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/code-practice-disinformation&quot;&gt;digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;EEAS (2024). &lt;em&gt;2nd EEAS Report on Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference Threats&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/2nd-eeas-report-foreign-information-manipulation-and-interference-threats_en&quot;&gt;eeas.europa.eu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;</content:encoded><enclosure url="https://quantarmy.com/content/images/2026/10/memetic-wars-en.png" length="0" type="image/png"/><category>Militar</category><author>Jesus Cuesta</author></item><item><title>Memetic Wars: cómo se orquesta, se mide y se apaga una guerra de memes</title><link>https://quantarmy.com/memetic-wars/</link><guid isPermaLink="true">https://quantarmy.com/memetic-wars/</guid><description>Un diplomático ruso acosado por perros shiba inu, una fábrica de memes con presupuesto de 1,25 millones de dólares al mes y una operación china con 7.704 cuentas que casi nadie vio. Investigación con fuentes primarias sobre la guerra paralela de los memes: cómo se orquesta, cómo se mide y cómo se apaga.</description><pubDate>Wed, 14 Oct 2026 10:00:00 GMT</pubDate><content:encoded>&lt;h2 id=&quot;un-diplomático-contra-una-jauría-de-shiba-inus&quot;&gt;Un diplomático contra una jauría de shiba inus&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Junio de 2022. Mikhail Ulyanov, representante permanente de Rusia ante las organizaciones internacionales en Viena, contesta en Twitter a una cuenta cuyo avatar es un perro shiba inu con un parche militar. Le escribe una frase torpe: &lt;em&gt;&quot;You pronounced this nonsense. Not me&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. En pocas horas, cientos de cuentas con el mismo perro, cada una con su variante, convierten la frase en un meme y la persiguen por todas sus respuestas. Vice tituló la crónica de aquella semana así: las cuentas de shiba inu &lt;em&gt;&quot;chased a Russian diplomat offline&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Aquellas cuentas eran NAFO, la &lt;em&gt;North Atlantic Fella Organization&lt;/em&gt;. No es una organización: es un enjambre. Nació el 24 de mayo de 2022 de un dibujo que un polaco, Kamil Dyszewski, regalaba a quien donara a la Legión Georgiana que combatía en Ucrania. En agosto el Ministerio de Defensa ucraniano le dio las gracias en público y el ministro Reznikov se puso un perro como avatar. En 2023 Lituania condecoró a su fundador.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Seis años antes, en un edificio de San Petersburgo, más de ochenta personas trabajaban en un &quot;proyecto traductor&quot; dedicado a Estados Unidos dentro de una operación con un presupuesto mensual de &lt;strong&gt;más de 73 millones de rublos (más de 1,25 millones de dólares)&lt;/strong&gt;. Su formato estrella también era el meme.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Son dos formas opuestas de hacer lo mismo: pelear una guerra en un frente que no sale en los mapas. Esta investigación va de ese frente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;la-pregunta-en-cuatro-piezas&quot;&gt;La pregunta, en cuatro piezas&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&quot;¿Funcionan los memes como arma?&quot; es una pregunta demasiado gorda para contestarla de una vez. La partimos en cuatro:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;¿Qué es exactamente una guerra memética y quién la ha puesto por escrito?&lt;/strong&gt; Doctrina, no folclore.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;¿Cómo se orquesta?&lt;/strong&gt; Qué estructuras, presupuestos y formatos aparecen en los casos documentados.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;¿Cómo se mide si ha funcionado?&lt;/strong&gt; Porque volumen no es impacto, y aquí está la sorpresa principal.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;¿Cómo se gestiona y se apaga?&lt;/strong&gt; Qué dice la evidencia sobre detectar, contener, desmentir y retirar.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Una advertencia antes de empezar: esto es un análisis, no un manual. Describimos cómo se han organizado las campañas documentadas y cómo se detectan y se desmontan. No explicamos cómo montar una operación de engaño, porque eso no es investigación.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;qué-es-una-guerra-memética&quot;&gt;Qué es una guerra memética&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La palabra &lt;em&gt;meme&lt;/em&gt; la inventó Richard Dawkins en &lt;em&gt;The Selfish Gene&lt;/em&gt; (1976), en el capítulo &quot;Memes: the new replicators&quot;. Abrevió el griego &lt;em&gt;mimeme&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;cosa imitada&quot;, para que rimara con &lt;em&gt;gene&lt;/em&gt;. Sus ejemplos eran melodías, eslóganes, modas y técnicas para construir arcos: unidades de cultura que se copian, mutan y compiten por la atención como los genes compiten por sobrevivir. Internet solo cambió la velocidad.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El salto a la literatura militar es temprano y, al principio, marginal:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2005–2006.&lt;/strong&gt; El comandante Michael B. Prosser, del Cuerpo de Marines, propone en &quot;Memetics — A Growth Industry in US Military Operations&quot; un &lt;em&gt;Meme Warfare Center&lt;/em&gt; con un &quot;oficial de gestión de memes&quot; que asesore al mando sobre &quot;generación y transmisión&quot; de memes.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2010.&lt;/strong&gt; El teniente Brian J. Hancock publica &quot;Memetic Warfare: The Future of War&quot; en el &lt;em&gt;Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; del Ejército de EE. UU.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2011.&lt;/strong&gt; DARPA lanza el programa &lt;strong&gt;SMISC&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;Social Media in Strategic Communication&lt;/em&gt;, convocatoria del 14 de julio de 2011): unos &lt;strong&gt;42 millones de dólares&lt;/strong&gt; estimados en investigación básica para tres años. Su primer objetivo, literal: &lt;em&gt;&quot;detect, classify, measure and track the formation, development and spread of ideas and concepts (memes)&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Su director, Rand Waltzman, calcula que acabó costando unos 50 millones en cuatro años.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2016.&lt;/strong&gt; Jeff Giesea publica en la revista del Centro de Excelencia de Comunicación Estratégica de la OTAN (Riga) &quot;It&apos;s Time to Embrace Memetic Warfare&quot;: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Trolling, it might be said, is the social media equivalent of guerrilla warfare, and memes are its currency of propaganda&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Es un ensayo de opinión, no doctrina. La web del centro lo fecha el 1 de marzo de 2016, aunque se cita a menudo como de 2015.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las grandes potencias no hablan de memes en sus documentos, pero sí del terreno donde viven:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rusia&lt;/strong&gt; usa &lt;em&gt;informatsionnoye protivoborstvo&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;confrontación informativa&quot;, más que &quot;guerra&quot;. En los &lt;em&gt;Conceptual Views&lt;/em&gt; de su Ministerio de Defensa (2011), la guerra de información incluye el &quot;lavado de cerebro masivo de la población para desestabilizar la sociedad y el Estado&quot;. El famoso artículo del general Gerasimov (26 de febrero de 2013) dice que los medios no militares &quot;han superado en muchos casos el poder de las armas&quot;. Ojo con la etiqueta, eso sí: la &quot;doctrina Gerasimov&quot; la acuñó el analista Mark Galeotti en su blog el 6 de julio de 2014, y él mismo se retractó en &lt;em&gt;Foreign Policy&lt;/em&gt; en 2018: &lt;em&gt;&quot;There&apos;s one small problem. It doesn&apos;t exist&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;China&lt;/strong&gt; fijó en diciembre de 2003, en el reglamento de trabajo político del Ejército Popular de Liberación, las &lt;strong&gt;&quot;tres guerras&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;: de opinión pública, psicológica y legal.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;La OTAN&lt;/strong&gt; encargó en 2020 un estudio sobre &lt;strong&gt;guerra cognitiva&lt;/strong&gt; (François du Cluzel, enero de 2021) que propone tratar a la persona como sexto dominio operativo. Su frase más citada: &lt;em&gt;&quot;the individual becomes the weapon&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. La propia OTAN advierte que el estudio no expresa su posición oficial, y el concepto formal seguía pendiente de aprobación a finales de 2025.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Estados Unidos&lt;/strong&gt; hizo de la información la séptima función conjunta en 2017 y publicó una doctrina específica (JP 3-04) en septiembre de 2022, sin difundirla. No hemos encontrado ninguna publicación doctrinal oficial estadounidense que use la expresión &lt;em&gt;memetic warfare&lt;/em&gt;: los memes solo aparecen en convocatorias de investigación como SMISC.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El Centro de Excelencia de la OTAN sí ha medido memes reales. En su informe de mayo de 2016 sobre el conflicto de Ucrania analizó Facebook y VKontakte entre el 31 de diciembre de 2012 y el 1 de abril de 2014 y contó 348 memes, casi seis veces más en VKontakte. Las cifras por red que da el propio informe (52 y 289) suman 341, no 348: un descuadre del original.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 470&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;470&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-t chart-mw-cronologia-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-t&quot;&gt;Cronología de la guerra memética entre 2011 y 2024: programas de Estado, operaciones y respuestas de plataformas, Naciones Unidas y tribunales&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-cronologia-d&quot;&gt;2011-07-14: DARPA SMISC: 42 M$ para rastrear memes; 2013-02-26: Artículo de Gerasimov; 2015-03: ISIS: ≥46.000 cuentas en Twitter; 2016-03-01: Giesea en la OTAN: guerra memética; 2016-09: IRA: &gt;1,25 M$ al mes; 2018-09: ONU: Facebook en Myanmar; 2019-08-19: Twitter: 936 cuentas por Hong Kong; 2022-05-24: Nace NAFO; 2022-09-27: Doppelganger al descubierto; 2023-08-29: Meta retira Spamouflage; 2024-09-04: EE. UU.: 32 dominios incautados&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;8&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;34&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Doctrina y programas de Estado&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;283&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;309&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Operaciones y movimientos&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;8&quot; y=&quot;23&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;34&quot; y=&quot;28&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Respuestas: plataformas, ONU, justicia&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M16,259 H848&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M46.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;46.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M98.4,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;98.4&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2012&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M150.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;150.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2013&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M202.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;202.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2014&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M254.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;254.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2015&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M306.4,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;306.4&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M358.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;358.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2017&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M410.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;410.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2018&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M462.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;462.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2019&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M514.4,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;514.4&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2020&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M566.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;566.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2021&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M618.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;618.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M670.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;670.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2023&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M722.4,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;722.4&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2024&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M774.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;774.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2025&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M826.5,255 V263&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;826.5&quot; y=&quot;273&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;2026&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M74.1,259 V227&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;74.1&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M158.5,259 V291&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;158.5&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M264.9,259 V227&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;264.9&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M315,259 V171&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--highlight&quot; cx=&quot;315&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M343.2,259 V291&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;343.2&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M447.1,259 V227&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;447.1&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M495.2,259 V171&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;495.2&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M638.9,259 V227&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--primary&quot; cx=&quot;638.9&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M656.8,259 V291&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;656.8&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M704.6,259 V171&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;704.6&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-annot-line&quot; d=&quot;M757.6,259 V347&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;circle class=&quot;fig-dot fig-dot--secondary&quot; cx=&quot;757.6&quot; cy=&quot;259&quot; r=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/circle&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;76.1&quot; y=&quot;189&quot; width=&quot;150.3&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;197&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;14 jul 2011&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;210&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;DARPA SMISC: 42 M$&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;78.1&quot; y=&quot;223&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;para rastrear memes&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;160.5&quot; y=&quot;293&quot; width=&quot;165.7&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;162.5&quot; y=&quot;301&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;26 feb 2013&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;162.5&quot; y=&quot;314&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Artículo de Gerasimov&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;266.9&quot; y=&quot;189&quot; width=&quot;165.7&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;197&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;mar 2015&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;210&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;ISIS: ≥46.000 cuentas&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;268.9&quot; y=&quot;223&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;en Twitter&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;317&quot; y=&quot;133&quot; width=&quot;142.6&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;141&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;1 mar 2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;154&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Giesea en la OTAN:&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;319&quot; y=&quot;167&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;guerra memética&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;345.2&quot; y=&quot;293&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;347.2&quot; y=&quot;301&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;sep 2016&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;347.2&quot; y=&quot;314&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;IRA: &gt;1,25 M$ al mes&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;449.1&quot; y=&quot;189&quot; width=&quot;127.2&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;197&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;sep 2018&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;210&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;ONU: Facebook en&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;451.1&quot; y=&quot;223&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Myanmar&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;497.2&quot; y=&quot;133&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;141&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;19 ago 2019&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;154&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Twitter: 936 cuentas&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;499.2&quot; y=&quot;167&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;por Hong Kong&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;640.9&quot; y=&quot;202&quot; width=&quot;88.7&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;642.9&quot; y=&quot;210&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;24 may 2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;642.9&quot; y=&quot;223&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Nace NAFO&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;658.8&quot; y=&quot;293&quot; width=&quot;119.5&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;660.8&quot; y=&quot;301&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;27 sep 2022&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;660.8&quot; y=&quot;314&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Doppelganger al&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;660.8&quot; y=&quot;327&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;descubierto&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;706.6&quot; y=&quot;133&quot; width=&quot;88.7&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;141&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;29 ago 2023&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;154&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Meta retira&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;708.6&quot; y=&quot;167&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Spamouflage&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-cluster-label-bg&quot; x=&quot;597.6&quot; y=&quot;349&quot; width=&quot;158&quot; height=&quot;42&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;753.6&quot; y=&quot;357&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;4 sep 2024&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;753.6&quot; y=&quot;370&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;EE. UU.: 32 dominios&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;753.6&quot; y=&quot;383&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;incautados&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figura 1. Quince años de guerra memética. En azul, doctrina y programas de Estado; en tinta, operaciones y movimientos; en gris, respuestas. Fuentes: DARPA, Gerasimov (VPK), Brookings, NATO StratCom COE, acusación US v. IRA, ONU, Twitter, EU DisinfoLab, Meta y Departamento de Justicia de EE. UU.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h2 id=&quot;cómo-se-orquesta-tres-modelos-documentados&quot;&gt;Cómo se orquesta: tres modelos documentados&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Los casos con documentación pública caben en tres modelos. Los llamamos &lt;strong&gt;fábrica&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;cañón de volumen&lt;/strong&gt; y &lt;strong&gt;enjambre&lt;/strong&gt;. Se diferencian en cuatro cosas: quién decide, cuánto cuesta, cuánto llega a gente real y si se puede atribuir.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;la-fábrica-la-internet-research-agency&quot;&gt;La fábrica: la Internet Research Agency&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La acusación del fiscal especial Mueller contra la Internet Research Agency (IRA) de San Petersburgo (16 de febrero de 2018) es el mejor documento público sobre cómo funciona una fábrica de memes por dentro:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Presupuesto.&lt;/strong&gt; El &quot;Proyecto Lakhta&quot; superaba en septiembre de 2016 los &lt;strong&gt;73 millones de rublos al mes (más de 1,25 millones de dólares)&lt;/strong&gt;, con un millón de rublos en primas. Ojo: ese presupuesto cubría todo el proyecto, también audiencias rusas y de otros países, no solo EE. UU.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Plantilla.&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;Cientos&quot; de empleados. En julio de 2016, &lt;strong&gt;más de 80&lt;/strong&gt; estaban asignados al &quot;proyecto traductor&quot; dedicado a EE. UU.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Salto a la calle.&lt;/strong&gt; La operación llegó a convocar manifestaciones reales en suelo estadounidense. La cuenta @TEN_GOP superó los 100.000 seguidores.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El análisis de New Knowledge para el Comité de Inteligencia del Senado (diciembre de 2018) puso números al formato. Revisaron a mano unos &lt;strong&gt;67.000 memes de Facebook y más de 100.000 de Instagram&lt;/strong&gt;. Su conclusión: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Memes are the propaganda of the digital age&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Buena parte del material eran memes populares reciclados, y la red que más rindió fue la más visual:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 288&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;288&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-t chart-mw-ira-engagement-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-t&quot;&gt;Interacciones con contenido de la IRA entre 2015 y 2017: 187,3 millones en Instagram, 76,5 millones en Facebook y unos 73 millones en contenido original de Twitter&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-ira-engagement-d&quot;&gt;Instagram: 187; Facebook: 77; Twitter: 73&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M85.3,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;0&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M263,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;263&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;50&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M440.7,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;440.7&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;100&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M618.4,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;618.4&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;150&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M796.1,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;796.1&quot; y=&quot;256&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;200&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;440.7&quot; y=&quot;276&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Interacciones con contenido del IRA, 2015–2017 (millones)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;36&quot; width=&quot;665.7&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;757&quot; y=&quot;47&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;187,3 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;34&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Instagram&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;47&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;116.000&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;60&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;posts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;114&quot; width=&quot;271.9&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;363.2&quot; y=&quot;125&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;76,5 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;112&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Facebook&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;125&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;61.500&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;138&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;posts&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--primary&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;192&quot; width=&quot;259.4&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;350.7&quot; y=&quot;203&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;73,0 M&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;190&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Twitter&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;203&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;3.841&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;77.3&quot; y=&quot;216&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;cuentas&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M85.3,8 V242&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figura 2. Instagram, la red de la imagen, rindió más del doble que Facebook. Fuente: New Knowledge, &quot;The Tactics &amp;#x26; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency&quot; (17 dic 2018), con datos que entregaron las propias plataformas.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;p&gt;La cifra de alcance más citada, que &lt;strong&gt;126 millones&lt;/strong&gt; de usuarios de Facebook &quot;pudieron ver&quot; contenido de la IRA, es de la propia empresa (Colin Stretch ante el Senado, 31 de octubre de 2017). La directa era de 29 millones. Twitter identificó &lt;strong&gt;3.841 cuentas&lt;/strong&gt; vinculadas a la IRA. El informe del Senado (volumen 2, octubre de 2019) subraya otro dato: el grupo más atacado fueron los afroamericanos, y la página falsa &lt;em&gt;Blacktivist&lt;/em&gt; acumuló 11,2 millones de interacciones. Después de las elecciones, la actividad de la IRA &lt;em&gt;subió&lt;/em&gt; un 238 % en Instagram.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;la-fábrica-20-doppelganger&quot;&gt;La fábrica 2.0: Doppelganger&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En septiembre de 2022, EU DisinfoLab y Qurium documentaron &lt;strong&gt;Doppelganger&lt;/strong&gt;: clones de al menos &lt;strong&gt;17 medios&lt;/strong&gt; europeos (Bild, The Guardian, 20 Minutes, Ansa…) en dominios de apariencia casi idéntica, empujados con páginas de Facebook y perfiles falsos. Dos años después, el 4 de septiembre de 2024, el Departamento de Justicia de EE. UU. incautó &lt;strong&gt;32 dominios&lt;/strong&gt;. Atribuyó la operación a las empresas Social Design Agency y Structura, que trabajaban bajo la Administración Presidencial rusa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La declaración jurada del FBI es explícita sobre el papel de los memes. Su &quot;Good Old U.S.A. Project&quot; preveía la &quot;distribución masiva de comentarios de texto y &lt;strong&gt;memes&lt;/strong&gt; en hilos de Facebook y X&quot;, con mensajes para seis estados bisagra. Un documento de planificación fijaba &lt;strong&gt;60.000 comentarios al mes&lt;/strong&gt; para Francia y Alemania, y la agencia mantenía una lista de &lt;strong&gt;más de 2.800 influencers&lt;/strong&gt; en 81 países. La fábrica ya no fabrica solo contenido: fabrica conversación alrededor del contenido.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;el-cañón-de-volumen-spamouflage&quot;&gt;El cañón de volumen: Spamouflage&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La operación china conocida como &lt;strong&gt;Spamouflage&lt;/strong&gt; (Dragonbridge para Google) es el contraejemplo perfecto. En agosto de 2023 Meta retiró &lt;strong&gt;7.704 cuentas de Facebook, 954 páginas, 15 grupos y 15 cuentas de Instagram&lt;/strong&gt;, con presencia en más de 50 plataformas. Ben Nimmo, entonces jefe de inteligencia de amenazas de Meta, la llamó &lt;em&gt;&quot;the largest, though unsuccessful, and most prolific covert influence operation that we know of&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Fíjate en la palabra &lt;em&gt;unsuccessful&lt;/em&gt;. Meta no encontró &quot;un engagement sustancial entre comunidades auténticas&quot;. Google, que la persigue en YouTube, da cifras más crudas. De los &lt;strong&gt;más de 57.000 canales&lt;/strong&gt; que deshabilitó en 2023, el &lt;strong&gt;80 % no tenía ni un suscriptor&lt;/strong&gt;. De los más de 900.000 vídeos retirados, el 65 % no llegaba a 100 visualizaciones y el &lt;strong&gt;30 % tenía cero&lt;/strong&gt;. Es un cañón que dispara a un desierto.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;el-enjambre-nafo-saint-javelin-y-el-fantasma-de-kiev&quot;&gt;El enjambre: NAFO, Saint Javelin y el Fantasma de Kiev&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El tercer modelo no tiene sede ni presupuesto. NAFO es una red descentralizada con una estética común (el perro &quot;fella&quot;), un objetivo claro (ridiculizar la propaganda del Kremlin) y una vía de financiación: los avatares se regalaban a donantes. Su fundador estima que recaudaron &quot;más de un millón de dólares&quot;, aunque nadie lleva una cuenta oficial. &lt;strong&gt;Saint Javelin&lt;/strong&gt;, una tienda de pegatinas de Toronto con una Virgen sosteniendo un lanzamisiles, empezó el 16 de febrero de 2022 con el objetivo de juntar 30.000 dólares. En septiembre de 2025 decía haber superado los 2,5 millones. Ambas cifras son las de los propios organizadores.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El enjambre también fabrica mitos. El &lt;strong&gt;Fantasma de Kiev&lt;/strong&gt;, un piloto que habría derribado decenas de aviones rusos en los primeros días de la invasión, corrió por todas las redes. El 30 de abril de 2022 la propia Fuerza Aérea ucraniana lo llamó &quot;una leyenda de superhéroe creada por los ucranianos&quot;, un símbolo colectivo de sus pilotos. Funcionó como moral y como recaudación. También es, técnicamente, desinformación amable.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;los-tres-modelos-en-una-tabla&quot;&gt;Los tres modelos, en una tabla&lt;/h3&gt;













































&lt;div class=&quot;table-wrap&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; role=&quot;region&quot; aria-label=&quot;Tabla&quot;&gt;&lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Modelo&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Caso&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Quién decide&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Escala documentada&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Alcance auténtico&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Atribución&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fábrica&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;IRA (2014–2018)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Estructura jerárquica con presupuesto&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&gt;80 personas en EE. UU.; &gt;1,25 M$/mes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alto: 187 M de interacciones en Instagram&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Acusación penal, 2018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fábrica 2.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Doppelganger (2022–2024)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Contratistas de la Administración Presidencial&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17 medios clonados; plan de 60.000 comentarios/mes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bajo según las plataformas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Incautación de 32 dominios, 2024&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Cañón de volumen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Spamouflage (2019–)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Vinculada a fuerzas de seguridad chinas (Meta)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7.704 cuentas FB; &gt;175.000 bloqueos en Google&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Casi nulo: 80 % de canales sin suscriptores&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Atribución de plataforma&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Enjambre&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;NAFO (2022–)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Nadie: coordinación por estética y objetivo&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&gt;1 M$ autodeclarado&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alto en su nicho; sin medición rigurosa&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pública y orgullosa&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La lección de la tabla es incómoda para quien piensa en presupuestos: &lt;strong&gt;el volumen no compra alcance&lt;/strong&gt;. La fábrica que funcionó lo hizo porque explotaba fracturas reales (raza, identidad) con el formato correcto (imagen, Instagram). El cañón más grande conocido casi no tuvo público.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;cuando-el-arma-es-la-plataforma-myanmar&quot;&gt;Cuando el arma es la plataforma: Myanmar&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Hay un caso en el que nadie necesitó una fábrica. La Misión de Investigación de la ONU sobre Myanmar (informe A/HRC/39/64, septiembre de 2018) escribió que Facebook &quot;ha sido un instrumento útil para quienes buscan difundir el odio, en un contexto en el que para la mayoría de los usuarios Facebook es Internet&quot;, y que la respuesta de la empresa fue &quot;lenta e ineficaz&quot;. Casi &lt;strong&gt;725.000&lt;/strong&gt; rohinyás huyeron del país tras agosto de 2017. El informe que encargó la propia Facebook a BSR (noviembre de 2018) lo admitió: &lt;em&gt;&quot;we weren&apos;t doing enough&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. A veces el frente paralelo no lo abre un ejército, sino un ecosistema sin moderación.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;y-el-califato-isis-en-twitter&quot;&gt;Y el califato: ISIS en Twitter&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Antes que nadie, el Estado Islámico entendió la red como frente. El censo de Berger y Morgan para Brookings (marzo de 2015) contó &lt;strong&gt;al menos 46.000 cuentas&lt;/strong&gt; de apoyo entre septiembre y diciembre de 2014, con un techo de unas 70.000. Cada una tenía de media unos mil seguidores, y un núcleo de &lt;strong&gt;500 a 2.000 cuentas hiperactivas&lt;/strong&gt; movía la mayor parte del alcance. Tres de cada cuatro escribían en árabe.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;por-qué-se-propagan&quot;&gt;Por qué se propagan&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Que la fábrica de la IRA rindiera y el cañón chino no se explica con tres hallazgos sólidos de la literatura.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lo falso viaja más, y no por los bots.&lt;/strong&gt; Vosoughi, Roy y Aral analizaron en &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (2018) unas &lt;strong&gt;126.000 historias&lt;/strong&gt; difundidas por unos 3 millones de personas en Twitter entre 2006 y 2017. Las falsedades tenían un &lt;strong&gt;70 % más de probabilidades de ser retuiteadas&lt;/strong&gt; que la verdad. A la verdad le costaba unas &lt;strong&gt;seis veces más&lt;/strong&gt; llegar a 1.500 personas. El dato clave es que los bots aceleraban por igual lo verdadero y lo falso: lo falso se propaga más &lt;em&gt;&quot;because humans, not robots, are more likely to spread it&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Los autores apuntan a la novedad y a la sorpresa o el asco que provoca.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;La emoción moral es combustible.&lt;/strong&gt; Brady y colegas (&lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt;, 2017) estudiaron 563.312 mensajes sobre temas polarizados. Cada palabra &lt;strong&gt;moral-emocional&lt;/strong&gt; adicional aumentaba la difusión de un mensaje en torno a un &lt;strong&gt;20 %&lt;/strong&gt;, y el efecto era mayor dentro de cada burbuja ideológica que entre burbujas. Un meme bélico bien hecho es exactamente eso: indignación moral comprimida en una imagen.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Los memes nacen en los márgenes y saltan.&lt;/strong&gt; Zannettou y colegas (IMC 2018) rastrearon unos &lt;strong&gt;160 millones de imágenes&lt;/strong&gt; en Twitter, Reddit, 4chan /pol/ y Gab durante trece meses de 2016–2017. Usaron &lt;em&gt;hashing&lt;/em&gt; perceptual: una huella de 64 bits que sobrevive a recortes y retoques. /pol/ fue la mayor fábrica de memes (1,57 millones de publicaciones), pero The_Donald fue la comunidad más &lt;em&gt;eficiente&lt;/em&gt; empujándolos hacia el resto. La siembra ocurre en nichos pequeños y radicales; la cosecha, en las plataformas grandes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;cómo-se-mide-el-impacto&quot;&gt;Cómo se mide el impacto&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Si volumen no es impacto, hace falta otra regla. La más usada por analistas y plataformas es la &lt;strong&gt;Breakout Scale&lt;/strong&gt; de Ben Nimmo (Brookings, septiembre de 2020). No mide cuántos mensajes se publican, sino &lt;strong&gt;cuánto sale una campaña de su nicho&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--flow&quot; viewBox=&quot;2 2 402.9 648&quot; width=&quot;403&quot; height=&quot;648&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-es-t fig-mw-breakout-es-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 403px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-es-t&quot;&gt;Escala de ruptura de Ben Nimmo en seis categorías, desde una comunidad en una plataforma hasta la respuesta política o la llamada a la violencia&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-es-d&quot;&gt;1 · una comunidad en una plataforma → 2 · una comunidad en varias plataformas o varias comunidades en una; 2 · una comunidad en varias plataformas o varias comunidades en una → 3 · varias plataformas y varias comunidades; 3 · varias plataformas y varias comunidades → 4 · salto a medios convencionales (sale de las redes); 4 · salto a medios convencionales → 5 · la amplifican famosos o candidatos; 5 · la amplifican famosos o candidatos → 6 · respuesta política, acción concreta o llamada a la violencia&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;defs&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow-accent&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow fig-accent-fill&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;/defs&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M203.5,68 L203.5,87 Q203.5,95 203.5,103 L203.5,122&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M203.5,178 L203.5,197 Q203.5,205 203.5,213 L203.5,232&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M203.5,288 L203.5,318 Q203.5,326 203.5,334 L203.5,364&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;121.1&quot; y=&quot;315&quot; width=&quot;164.7&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;326&quot;&gt;sale de las redes&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M203.5,420 L203.5,439 Q203.5,447 203.5,455 L203.5,474&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M203.5,530 L203.5,549 Q203.5,557 203.5,565 L203.5,584&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-breakout-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;112.1&quot; y=&quot;12&quot; width=&quot;182.7&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;31&quot;&gt;1 · una comunidad&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;49&quot;&gt;en una plataforma&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;12&quot; y=&quot;122&quot; width=&quot;382.9&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;141&quot;&gt;2 · una comunidad en varias plataformas&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;159&quot;&gt;o varias comunidades en una&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;89.4&quot; y=&quot;232&quot; width=&quot;228.2&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;251&quot;&gt;3 · varias plataformas&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;269&quot;&gt;y varias comunidades&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;107.6&quot; y=&quot;364&quot; width=&quot;191.8&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;383&quot;&gt;4 · salto a medios&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;401&quot;&gt;convencionales&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;75.7&quot; y=&quot;474&quot; width=&quot;255.5&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;493&quot;&gt;5 · la amplifican famosos&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;511&quot;&gt;o candidatos&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;polygon class=&quot;fig-node&quot; points=&quot;39.3,584 367.6,584 384.4,612 367.6,640 39.3,640 22.5,612&quot;&gt;&lt;/polygon&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;203.5&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;603&quot;&gt;6 · respuesta política, acción&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;203.5&quot; y=&quot;621&quot;&gt;concreta o llamada a la violencia&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figura 3. La escala de ruptura (Breakout Scale) de Ben Nimmo. Cada escalón exige salir de un público más: de una comunidad, de una plataforma, de las redes sociales y, al final, de la pantalla. Fuente: Brookings, septiembre de 2020.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;p&gt;Con esta regla, el gran miedo de los últimos años, la IA generativa, queda en su sitio por ahora. En mayo de 2024 OpenAI publicó cinco operaciones que usaban sus modelos: Bad Grammar y Doppelganger (Rusia), Spamouflage (China), IUVM (Irán) y Zero Zeno, de una empresa comercial israelí. &lt;strong&gt;Ninguna pasó de la categoría 2&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;&quot;no breakout to authentic audiences&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. En octubre de 2025 la cifra acumulada ya superaba las 40 redes desarticuladas desde febrero de 2024. Su conclusión: los actores añaden IA a procesos que ya tenían, en lugar de inventar otros nuevos. Microsoft (abril de 2024) apunta en la misma dirección: el contenido &lt;strong&gt;retocado&lt;/strong&gt; con IA influye más que el generado por completo, y el audio falso más que el vídeo falso.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Una precaución de método: estas evaluaciones de &quot;impacto limitado&quot; las hacen las propias plataformas sobre lo que encuentran. Lo que no encuentran no entra en la estadística.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;cómo-se-detecta&quot;&gt;Cómo se detecta&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las plataformas no retiran estas redes por lo que dicen, sino por &lt;strong&gt;cómo se comportan&lt;/strong&gt;. Meta llama a esto &lt;em&gt;Coordinated Inauthentic Behavior&lt;/em&gt; (CIB): &quot;esfuerzos coordinados para manipular el debate público con un objetivo estratégico, en los que las cuentas falsas son centrales&quot;. Ha publicado sus retiradas desde 2017. En diciembre de 2022 llevaba &lt;strong&gt;más de 200 redes&lt;/strong&gt; de 68 países, y el orden de origen se mantiene estable: Rusia (39 redes en agosto de 2024), Irán (unas 30) y China (11).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El método académico de referencia es el de Pacheco y colegas (ICWSM 2021). Se elige una huella de comportamiento, se construye una red cuenta–huella y se proyecta sobre las cuentas: dos cuentas quedan unidas si comparten demasiadas huellas. Al final se revisan a mano los grupos. Su virtud es que detecta &lt;strong&gt;coordinación, no automatización&lt;/strong&gt;, así que caza operaciones manejadas por personas que un detector de bots no ve. Esos detectores, por cierto, fallan mucho: Rauchfleisch y Kaiser (&lt;em&gt;PLOS ONE&lt;/em&gt;, 2020) demostraron que Botometer cuenta como bots a muchos humanos, y al revés, sobre todo fuera del inglés.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Para memes, la huella natural es el &lt;strong&gt;hash perceptual&lt;/strong&gt; de la imagen, el mismo que usaron Zannettou y colegas. Este es el núcleo del método, en Python sin dependencias y con datos sintéticos: 60 cuentas orgánicas publican memes al azar durante una semana y una red de 6 cuentas publica cinco oleadas del mismo meme en menos de 40 segundos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;code-block&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;code-head&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;label&quot;&gt;python&lt;/span&gt;&lt;button class=&quot;code-copy&quot; type=&quot;button&quot; data-done=&quot;Copiado&quot;&gt;Copiar&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;pre class=&quot;astro-code qa-tokens&quot; style=&quot;background-color:var(--shiki-background);color:var(--shiki-foreground); overflow-x: auto;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; data-language=&quot;python&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;Detección de comportamiento coordinado por co-publicación (datos sintéticos, solo biblioteca estándar).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;Idea (Pacheco et al., ICWSM 2021): dos cuentas que publican el mismo contenido, una y otra vez,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;con segundos de diferencia, rara vez lo hacen por casualidad. Se cuenta cuántas veces coincide&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;cada par dentro de una ventana, se queda con los pares que superan un umbral y se agrupan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; random&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;from&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; collections &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;random&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;seed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;VENTANA &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;   # segundos: dos publicaciones del mismo meme más cerca que esto &quot;coinciden&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;UMBRAL &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;     # coincidencias mínimas para considerar coordinado un par de cuentas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- Datos sintéticos: (cuenta, hash perceptual del meme, segundo de publicación) ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;eventos &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; []&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;memes &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;:02d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; i &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; c &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;                                   # 60 cuentas orgánicas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; _ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;12&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        eventos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;user_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;:02d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;choice&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(memes), random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; *&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 86400&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;red &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;red_&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; c &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; range&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;]                  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# 6 cuentas de una red coordinada&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; oleada&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; enumerate&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;([&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_03&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_11&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_17&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_22&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;meme_29&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    t0 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 86400&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; *&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (oleada &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; cuenta &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; red&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        eventos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((cuenta, meme, t0 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; random.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;randint&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;   # todas en menos de 40 s&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- 1. Coincidencias por par: mismo meme dentro de la ventana ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;por_meme &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;list&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; cuenta&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; eventos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    por_meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;append&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((t, cuenta))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;pares &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;int&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; pubs &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; por_meme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;items&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;():&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    pubs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sort&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;()&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (t1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; a) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; enumerate&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(pubs):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;        for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; pubs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;i &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:]:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;            if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t2 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;-&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; t1 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; VENTANA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;                break&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;            if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; a &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;!=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;                pares&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;tuple&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;((a, b)))]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; +=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt; 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-comment)&quot;&gt;# --- 2. Pares por encima del umbral → grupos (unión-búsqueda) ---&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;padre &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; {}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; raiz&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-parameter)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;setdefault&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(x, x)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    while&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; !=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        x &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    return&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; (a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; b)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; pares&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;items&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;():&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;    if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; UMBRAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;        padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;raiz&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(a)]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; raiz&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(b)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;grupos &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; defaultdict&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;set&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; cuenta &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; padre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt;    grupos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;raiz&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(cuenta)].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;add&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(cuenta)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;eventos: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(eventos)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; · cuentas: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;({e[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; e &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; eventos})&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; · pares que coinciden alguna vez: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(pares)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;pares con &gt;= &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;UMBRAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; coincidencias en &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;VENTANA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; s: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt; for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; pares.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;() &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;if&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; n &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt; UMBRAL)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;for&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-foreground)&quot;&gt; g &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt; sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(grupos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(), key&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;, reverse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;True&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;    print&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-keyword)&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;grupo coordinado (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;len&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(g)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt; cuentas): &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&apos;, &apos;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;join&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-function)&quot;&gt;sorted&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;(g))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-constant)&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-string-expression)&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--shiki-token-punctuation)&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Salida esperada:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;code-block&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;code-head&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;label&quot;&gt;text&lt;/span&gt;&lt;button class=&quot;code-copy&quot; type=&quot;button&quot; data-done=&quot;Copiado&quot;&gt;Copiar&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;pre class=&quot;astro-code qa-tokens&quot; style=&quot;background-color:var(--shiki-background);color:var(--shiki-foreground); overflow-x: auto;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot; data-language=&quot;text&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;eventos: 497 · cuentas: 66 · pares que coinciden alguna vez: 17&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;pares con &gt;= 3 coincidencias en 60 s: 15&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;line&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;grupo coordinado (6 cuentas): red_0, red_1, red_2, red_3, red_4, red_5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;De 17 pares que coinciden alguna vez, solo 15 lo hacen tres veces o más, y son exactamente los 15 pares posibles entre las 6 cuentas de la red. Las coincidencias casuales entre usuarios orgánicos se quedan por debajo del umbral. En datos reales nada es tan limpio: hay que calibrar ventana y umbral, pesar los memes muy populares (que coinciden por pura viralidad) y revisar cada grupo a mano antes de llamarlo red. Pero la lógica de las retiradas de plataforma es esta: &lt;strong&gt;el contenido puede ser legítimo; la coreografía, no&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;cómo-se-gestiona-y-se-apaga&quot;&gt;Cómo se gestiona y se apaga&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Detectar no es responder. Con la evidencia disponible, la respuesta tiene la forma de un ciclo, y la primera decisión es la más contraintuitiva:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--flow&quot; viewBox=&quot;2 2 920.7 701.6&quot; width=&quot;921&quot; height=&quot;702&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-es-t fig-mw-respuesta-es-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 921px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-es-t&quot;&gt;Ciclo de respuesta a una campaña memética: detectar coordinación, medir la ruptura y, según salga o no de su nicho, no amplificar, hacer prebunking, exponer y atribuir o retirar la red, y medir el efecto&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-es-d&quot;&gt;señal: un meme se acelera → detectar coordinación comportamiento, no contenido; detectar coordinación comportamiento, no contenido → medir la ruptura categoría 1–6; medir la ruptura categoría 1–6 → ¿salió de su nicho?; ¿salió de su nicho? → no amplificar y vigilar (no); ¿salió de su nicho? → prebunking y notas de contexto (sí); ¿salió de su nicho? → exponer y atribuir con evidencia pública (sí); ¿salió de su nicho? → retirar la red y sancionar (sí, y es coordinada); no amplificar y vigilar → medir el efecto alcance antes y después; prebunking y notas de contexto → medir el efecto alcance antes y después; exponer y atribuir con evidencia pública → medir el efecto alcance antes y después; retirar la red y sancionar → medir el efecto alcance antes y después; medir el efecto alcance antes y después → detectar coordinación comportamiento, no contenido (siguiente ciclo)&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;defs&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;marker id=&quot;fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow-accent&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 10 10&quot; refX=&quot;9&quot; refY=&quot;5&quot; markerWidth=&quot;7&quot; markerHeight=&quot;7&quot; orient=&quot;auto-start-reverse&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=&quot;M0,0 L10,5 L0,10 z&quot; class=&quot;fig-arrow fig-accent-fill&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/marker&gt;&lt;/defs&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M362.6,68 L362.6,87 Q362.6,95 362.6,103 L362.6,122&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M443.7,178 L514.4,202.4 Q522,205 522,213 L522,232&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M522,288 L522,307 Q522,315 522,323 L522,342&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M625.4,417.8 L831.8,473.5 Q839.6,475.6 839.6,483.6 L839.6,513.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;825.5&quot; y=&quot;464.6&quot; width=&quot;28.2&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;839.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;839.6&quot; y=&quot;475.6&quot;&gt;no&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M587.7,437.6 L633.5,470.9 Q640,475.6 640,483.6 L640,513.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;625.9&quot; y=&quot;464.6&quot; width=&quot;28.2&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;640&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;640&quot; y=&quot;475.6&quot;&gt;sí&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M456.2,437.6 L410.4,470.9 Q404,475.6 404,483.6 L404,513.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;389.9&quot; y=&quot;464.6&quot; width=&quot;28.2&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;404&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;404&quot; y=&quot;475.6&quot;&gt;sí&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M418.5,416.6 L198.4,473.6 Q190.7,475.6 190.7,483.6 L190.7,513.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;99.3&quot; y=&quot;464.6&quot; width=&quot;182.9&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;190.7&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;190.7&quot; y=&quot;475.6&quot;&gt;sí, y es coordinada&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M839.6,569.6 L839.6,588.6 Q839.6,596.6 831.6,597.9 L568.2,639.7&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M640,569.6 L640,588.6 Q640,596.6 632.3,599.1 L557,623.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M404,569.6 L404,588.6 Q404,596.6 408.7,603 L423.8,623.6&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--solid&quot; d=&quot;M190.7,569.6 L190.7,588.6 Q190.7,596.6 198.5,598.5 L330.9,630.2&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-edge fig-edge--dotted&quot; d=&quot;M330.9,638.4 L93.1,597.9 Q85.3,596.6 85.3,588.6 L85.3,549.6 Q85.3,541.6 85.3,533.6 L85.3,483.6 Q85.3,475.6 85.3,467.6 L85.3,397.8 Q85.3,389.8 85.3,381.8 L85.3,323 Q85.3,315 85.3,307 L85.3,268 Q85.3,260 85.3,252 L85.3,213 Q85.3,205 93.1,203.4 L221.4,178&quot; marker-end=&quot;url(#fig-mw-respuesta-es-arrow)&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-edge-label&quot;&gt;&lt;rect x=&quot;12&quot; y=&quot;378.8&quot; width=&quot;146.5&quot; height=&quot;22&quot; rx=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;85.3&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;85.3&quot; y=&quot;389.8&quot;&gt;siguiente ciclo&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;284.9&quot; y=&quot;12&quot; width=&quot;155.4&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;28&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;362.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;362.6&quot; y=&quot;31&quot;&gt;señal: un meme&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;362.6&quot; y=&quot;49&quot;&gt;se acelera&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;221.2&quot; y=&quot;122&quot; width=&quot;282.8&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;362.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;362.6&quot; y=&quot;141&quot;&gt;detectar coordinación&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;362.6&quot; y=&quot;159&quot;&gt;comportamiento, no contenido&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;435.2&quot; y=&quot;232&quot; width=&quot;173.6&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;522&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;522&quot; y=&quot;251&quot;&gt;medir la ruptura&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;522&quot; y=&quot;269&quot;&gt;categoría 1–6&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;polygon class=&quot;fig-node&quot; points=&quot;522,342 625.4,389.8 522,437.6 418.5,389.8&quot;&gt;&lt;/polygon&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;522&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;522&quot; y=&quot;380.8&quot;&gt;¿salió&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;522&quot; y=&quot;398.8&quot;&gt;de su nicho?&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;766.4&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;146.3&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;839.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;839.6&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;no amplificar&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;839.6&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;y vigilar&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;539.5&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;200.9&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;640&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;640&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;prebunking&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;640&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;y notas de contexto&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;294.4&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;219.1&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;404&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;404&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;exponer y atribuir&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;404&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;con evidencia pública&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-node&quot; x=&quot;113&quot; y=&quot;513.6&quot; width=&quot;155.4&quot; height=&quot;56&quot; rx=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;190.7&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;190.7&quot; y=&quot;532.6&quot;&gt;retirar la red&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;190.7&quot; y=&quot;550.6&quot;&gt;y sancionar&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;fig-node-group&quot;&gt;&lt;g&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-node&quot; d=&quot;M330.9,629.6 A118.7,6 0 0 1 568.2,629.6 V687.6 A118.7,6 0 0 1 330.9,687.6 Z&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-node-line&quot; d=&quot;M330.9,629.6 A118.7,6 0 0 0 568.2,629.6&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;449.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot;&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;449.6&quot; y=&quot;653.6&quot;&gt;medir el efecto&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;tspan x=&quot;449.6&quot; y=&quot;671.6&quot;&gt;alcance antes y después&lt;/tspan&gt;&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figura 4. Ciclo de respuesta. Si una campaña no ha salido de su nicho (categoría 1–2), desmentirla en público puede ser lo que la saque de él. Elaboración propia a partir de la Breakout Scale (Nimmo, 2020) y de la evidencia citada en esta sección.&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h3 id=&quot;antes-vacunar&quot;&gt;Antes: vacunar&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;inoculación psicológica&lt;/strong&gt; o &lt;em&gt;prebunking&lt;/em&gt; enseña la técnica de manipulación antes de que llegue el mensaje concreto. Roozenbeek, van der Linden y colegas (&lt;em&gt;Science Advances&lt;/em&gt;, 2022) lo probaron en laboratorio y en YouTube. En el campo, 5,4 millones de usuarios estadounidenses vieron los anuncios y 22.632 respondieron una pregunta de control. Reconocer técnicas como el chivo expiatorio o el falso dilema mejoró en torno a un &lt;strong&gt;5 %&lt;/strong&gt;. Es poco por persona y mucho a escala, porque cuesta lo que un anuncio.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Google Jigsaw llevó la idea a Polonia, Chequia y Eslovaquia en otoño de 2022, contra los bulos sobre refugiados ucranianos. Sus vídeos sumaron más de 38 millones de visualizaciones, pero el efecto fue &lt;strong&gt;desigual&lt;/strong&gt;: mayor en Polonia, mixto en Chequia y casi nulo en Eslovaquia, donde los vídeos estaban doblados en lugar de producidos localmente. La vacuna funciona mejor con acento propio.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;durante-contestar-rápido-y-con-gracia&quot;&gt;Durante: contestar rápido y con gracia&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Taiwán convirtió esto en política de Estado con el lema &lt;strong&gt;&quot;humor over rumor&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. En febrero de 2020 el primer ministro respondió con un meme a un bulo que provocaba compras de pánico de papel higiénico. La regla operativa que se atribuye al gobierno, la &lt;strong&gt;&quot;2-2-2&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, tiene varias versiones públicas: 20 minutos o 2 horas para responder, 200 palabras y 2 imágenes. No hemos encontrado un documento oficial que fije la versión exacta. Lo constante es la idea: velocidad, brevedad e imagen, las mismas armas que el meme que se contesta.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Desmentir no es contraproducente.&lt;/strong&gt; El temido &quot;efecto rebote&quot; (la corrección que refuerza la creencia falsa) es raro. Wood y Porter (&lt;em&gt;Political Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 2019) hicieron 5 experimentos con más de 10.100 personas sobre 52 temas: &lt;strong&gt;ninguna corrección produjo rebote&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Las notas de contexto funcionan, pero llegan tarde.&lt;/strong&gt; Las &lt;em&gt;Community Notes&lt;/em&gt; de X son el experimento natural más grande. Sobre el post concreto, el efecto es fuerte. En toda la plataforma, modesto, porque la nota aparece cuando lo viral ya ha pasado:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;figure class=&quot;figure figure--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;figure-plate figure-plate--svg&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;fig fig--chart&quot; viewBox=&quot;0 0 864 360&quot; width=&quot;864&quot; height=&quot;360&quot; role=&quot;img&quot; aria-labelledby=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-t chart-mw-community-notes-d&quot; xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/2000/svg&quot; style=&quot;--fig-w: 864px&quot;&gt;&lt;title id=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-t&quot;&gt;Reducción del alcance por las notas de comunidad en X: 46,1 % de reposts menos tras la nota frente a 11,6 % en toda la vida del post, y 61,2 % menos de difusión frente a 14,9 % de efecto total&lt;/title&gt;&lt;desc id=&quot;chart-mw-community-notes-d&quot;&gt;Reposts (Slaughter et al., 2025): 46,1 % / 11,6 %; Difusión (Chuai et al., 2026): 61,2 % / 14,9 %&lt;/desc&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;8&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;34&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Desde que se publica la nota&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;267.6&quot; y=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;14&quot; height=&quot;10&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;293.6&quot; y=&quot;10&quot; text-anchor=&quot;start&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;En toda la vida del post&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,332 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;332&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;0 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,291.1 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;291.1&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;10 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,250.3 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;250.3&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;20 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,209.4 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;209.4&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;30 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,168.6 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;168.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;40 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,127.7 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;127.7&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;50 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,86.9 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;86.9&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;60 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-grid&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,46 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;54.8&quot; y=&quot;46&quot; text-anchor=&quot;end&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;70 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;fig-axis&quot; d=&quot;M60.8,332 H854&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;10&quot; y=&quot;189&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot; transform=&quot;rotate(-90 10 189)&quot;&gt;Reducción (%)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;204.1&quot; y=&quot;143.6&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;188.4&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;231.1&quot; y=&quot;134.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;46,1 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;260.1&quot; y=&quot;284.6&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;47.4&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;287.1&quot; y=&quot;275.6&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;11,6 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;259.1&quot; y=&quot;344&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Reposts (Slaughter et al., 2025)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--highlight&quot; x=&quot;600.7&quot; y=&quot;82&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;250&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;627.7&quot; y=&quot;73&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;61,2 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;rect class=&quot;fig-bar fig-bar--secondary&quot; x=&quot;656.7&quot; y=&quot;271.1&quot; width=&quot;54&quot; height=&quot;60.9&quot; rx=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/rect&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text&quot; x=&quot;683.7&quot; y=&quot;262.1&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;14,9 %&lt;/text&gt;&lt;text class=&quot;fig-text fig-text--muted&quot; x=&quot;655.7&quot; y=&quot;344&quot; text-anchor=&quot;middle&quot; dominant-baseline=&quot;central&quot; font-size=&quot;11&quot;&gt;Difusión (Chuai et al., 2026)&lt;/text&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figura 5. Efecto de una nota de contexto desde que se publica frente a toda la vida del post. Fuentes: Slaughter, Peytavin, Ugander y Saveski (PNAS, septiembre de 2025; 40.078 posts) y Chuai et al. (Nature Communications, aceptado en 2026; 237.180 cascadas).&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;

&lt;h3 id=&quot;después-retirar-y-medir-la-migración&quot;&gt;Después: retirar, y medir la migración&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;retirada de redes&lt;/strong&gt; (CIB) es la herramienta más contundente de las plataformas y la que mejor deja huella pública. Twitter abrió en 2018 un archivo de operaciones estatales con las 3.841 cuentas de la IRA y 770 de Irán. En 2019 ya pasaba de 30 millones de tuits.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;expulsión de personas&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;deplatforming&lt;/em&gt;) tiene evidencia más fuerte de lo que suele creerse, con un matiz:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;McCabe y colegas (&lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;, 2024) estudiaron la expulsión de &lt;strong&gt;70.000&lt;/strong&gt; cuentas difusoras de desinformación tras el 6 de enero de 2021, con un panel de más de 500.000 usuarios. La circulación de desinformación bajó, tanto la de los expulsados como la de sus seguidores. Los autores no pueden aislar el tamaño exacto del efecto, porque coincidió con el asalto al Capitolio.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Jhaver y colegas (2021) midieron en 49 millones de tuits la expulsión de Alex Jones, Milo Yiannopoulos y Owen Benjamin: la conversación sobre ellos cayó con fuerza y la toxicidad de sus seguidores también.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;El matiz: quien migra a su propia plataforma pierde audiencia, pero puede radicalizarse. Horta Ribeiro y colegas (2021) lo vieron en r/The_Donald.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;por-encima-reglas-y-estado&quot;&gt;Por encima: reglas y Estado&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unión Europea.&lt;/strong&gt; La Ley de Servicios Digitales obliga desde el &lt;strong&gt;25 de agosto de 2023&lt;/strong&gt; a las grandes plataformas a evaluar y mitigar riesgos sistémicos para el debate cívico. Su primer procedimiento formal fue contra X, el 18 de diciembre de 2023, tras la avalancha de desinformación sobre la guerra entre Israel y Hamás; la multa máxima es el 6 % de la facturación mundial. El Código de Buenas Prácticas contra la Desinformación se convirtió en código de conducta de esa ley el 1 de julio de 2025.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Los ataques medidos.&lt;/strong&gt; La base de datos EUvsDisinfo supera los 18.000 casos. Los informes del Servicio Europeo de Acción Exterior sobre manipulación extranjera contaron 100 incidentes en 2022 (Rusia, en 88), 750 en 2023 y 505 en 2024.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sanciones.&lt;/strong&gt; La UE suspendió RT y Sputnik el 1 de marzo de 2022. EE. UU. combinó la incautación de dominios de Doppelganger con sanciones a 10 personas y 2 entidades el mismo día.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Y también se apaga la defensa.&lt;/strong&gt; El Global Engagement Center del Departamento de Estado, la oficina estadounidense dedicada a contrarrestar la propaganda extranjera, cerró el 23 de diciembre de 2024. Su sucesora, R/FIMI, se cerró el 16 de abril de 2025. Apagar una guerra memética también depende de que alguien siga dispuesto a pelearla.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h3 id=&quot;y-la-contrainformación-de-uniforme&quot;&gt;Y la contrainformación de uniforme&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El Ejército británico tiene una unidad para esto, la &lt;strong&gt;77.ª Brigada&lt;/strong&gt;, que se define como híbrida, para &quot;combatir nuevas formas de guerra en el entorno de la información&quot;. Las peticiones de transparencia revelaron que vigiló tendencias de desinformación en las redes británicas durante la COVID. Es el recordatorio de que las herramientas de defensa también pueden apuntar hacia dentro.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;nota-de-método-lo-que-esto-es-y-lo-que-no-es&quot;&gt;Nota de método: lo que esto es y lo que no es&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Es&lt;/strong&gt; una síntesis de fuentes primarias: documentos judiciales, informes de plataformas, informes parlamentarios y de la ONU, y artículos con revisión por pares. Cada cifra va con su fuente.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No es&lt;/strong&gt; una medición propia del impacto. La mayoría de cifras de alcance son &lt;strong&gt;de las propias plataformas&lt;/strong&gt; (Meta, Google, Twitter/X, OpenAI), y los análisis independientes, como el de New Knowledge, trabajaron con datos que esas mismas plataformas entregaron. Lo que no detectan no aparece.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No es&lt;/strong&gt; un manual. Describimos cómo se organizaron las campañas documentadas y cómo se detectan. No damos instrucciones para crear perfiles falsos ni para evadir la detección.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Hay &lt;strong&gt;cifras autodeclaradas&lt;/strong&gt; que no hemos podido auditar (lo recaudado por NAFO y Saint Javelin) y &lt;strong&gt;reglas sin documento oficial&lt;/strong&gt; (la &quot;2-2-2&quot; de Taiwán). Lo decimos donde aparecen.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;El código es un ejemplo didáctico con datos sintéticos, no un detector listo para producción.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;lo-que-nos-llevamos&quot;&gt;Lo que nos llevamos&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;El volumen no compra alcance.&lt;/strong&gt; La mayor operación conocida, Spamouflage, apenas tuvo público. La que funcionó, la IRA, explotaba fracturas reales con el formato adecuado. Mide la ruptura (categorías 1–6), no los mensajes.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Los memes los empujan las personas, no los bots.&lt;/strong&gt; Lo falso viaja un 70 % más por novedad y emoción moral, y los bots no cambian eso. La defensa tiene que hablar a personas.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Se detecta la coreografía, no la opinión.&lt;/strong&gt; Las retiradas que se sostienen se basan en comportamiento coordinado, no en el contenido. Por eso son defendibles en una democracia.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Para apagarlo, la velocidad manda.&lt;/strong&gt; Vacunar antes (prebunking), contestar rápido y con humor, anotar pronto y retirar la red. Una nota que llega tarde reduce el 46 % de lo que queda, pero solo el 12 % del total.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 id=&quot;fuentes-y-enlaces&quot;&gt;Fuentes y enlaces&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Doctrina e historia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Dawkins, R. (1976). &lt;em&gt;The Selfish Gene&lt;/em&gt;, cap. 11, &quot;Memes: the new replicators&quot;. Oxford University Press.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Hancock, B. J. (2010). &quot;Memetic Warfare: The Future of War&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; 36(2). &lt;a href=&quot;https://irp.fas.org/agency/army/mipb/2010_02.pdf&quot;&gt;irp.fas.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;DARPA (2011). &lt;em&gt;Social Media in Strategic Communication&lt;/em&gt; (DARPA-BAA-11-64). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/social-media-in-strategic-communication&quot;&gt;darpa.mil&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Giesea, J. (2016). &quot;It&apos;s Time to Embrace Memetic Warfare&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Defence Strategic Communications&lt;/em&gt; 1. NATO StratCom COE. &lt;a href=&quot;https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/its-time-to-embrace-memetic-warfare/164&quot;&gt;stratcomcoe.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Galeotti, M. (2018). &quot;I&apos;m Sorry for Creating the &apos;Gerasimov Doctrine&apos;&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Foreign Policy&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/03/05/im-sorry-for-creating-the-gerasimov-doctrine/&quot;&gt;foreignpolicy.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Ministerio de Defensa de Rusia (2011). &lt;em&gt;Conceptual Views Regarding the Activities of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation in the Information Space&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/5017678/Russian-Government-Conceptual-Views-Regarding.pdf&quot;&gt;nsarchive.gwu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;du Cluzel, F. (2021). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Warfare&lt;/em&gt;. NATO ACT Innovation Hub. &lt;a href=&quot;https://innovationhub-act.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/20210122_CW-Final.pdf&quot;&gt;innovationhub-act.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;NATO StratCom COE (2016). &lt;em&gt;Framing of the Ukraine–Russia Conflict in Online and Social Media&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://stratcomcoe.org/cuploads/pfiles/ukr_social_media_full_report-2.pdf&quot;&gt;stratcomcoe.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Casos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;United States v. Internet Research Agency et al.&lt;/em&gt; (2018), acusación. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov/archives/sco/file/1035477/dl&quot;&gt;justice.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;New Knowledge (2018). &lt;em&gt;The Tactics &amp;#x26; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://law.shu.edu/documents/newknowledge-irareport.pdf&quot;&gt;law.shu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;EU DisinfoLab y Qurium (2022). &lt;em&gt;Doppelganger&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/semon9-giki0/2022-09-27-EUDisinfoLab-Qurium-Doppelganger.pdf&quot;&gt;nsarchive.gwu.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Departamento de Justicia de EE. UU. (2024). Declaración jurada sobre Doppelganger. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov/d9/2024-09/doppelganger_affidavit_9.4.24.pdf&quot;&gt;justice.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Google TAG (2024). Dragonbridge. &lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.google/threat-analysis-group/google-disrupted-dragonbridge-activity-q1-2024/&quot;&gt;blog.google&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Misión Internacional Independiente de Investigación sobre Myanmar (2018). A/HRC/39/64. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1441760/1930_1535440161_a-hrc-39-64.pdf&quot;&gt;ecoi.net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Berger, J. M. y Morgan, J. (2015). &lt;em&gt;The ISIS Twitter Census&lt;/em&gt;. Brookings. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/isis_twitter_census_berger_morgan.pdf&quot;&gt;brookings.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Kyiv Post (2023). Entrevista con el fundador de NAFO. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kyivpost.com/russias-war/founder-of-nafo-reveals-identity-discusses-raison-detre.html&quot;&gt;kyivpost.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mecánica, medición y detección&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Vosoughi, S., Roy, D. y Aral, S. (2018). &quot;The spread of true and false news online&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 359(6380). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559&quot;&gt;doi:10.1126/science.aap9559&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Brady, W. J. et al. (2017). &quot;Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks&quot;. &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; 114(28). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114&quot;&gt;doi:10.1073/pnas.1618923114&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Zannettou, S. et al. (2018). &quot;On the Origins of Memes by Means of Fringe Web Communities&quot;. IMC. &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1805.12512&quot;&gt;arxiv.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Nimmo, B. (2020). &quot;The Breakout Scale&quot;. Brookings. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-breakout-scale-measuring-the-impact-of-influence-operations/&quot;&gt;brookings.edu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Pacheco, D. et al. (2021). &quot;Uncovering Coordinated Networks on Social Media&quot;. ICWSM. &lt;a href=&quot;https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/18075&quot;&gt;ojs.aaai.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Rauchfleisch, A. y Kaiser, J. (2020). &quot;The False Positive Problem of Automatic Bot Detection in Social Science Research&quot;. &lt;em&gt;PLOS ONE&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241045&quot;&gt;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241045&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;OpenAI (2024). &lt;em&gt;AI and Covert Influence Operations: Latest Trends&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://openai.com/index/disrupting-deceptive-uses-of-ai-by-covert-influence-operations/&quot;&gt;openai.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;DISARM Foundation. Marco abierto para describir operaciones de influencia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.disarm.foundation/faqs&quot;&gt;disarm.foundation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Respuesta&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Roozenbeek, J. et al. (2022). &quot;Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Science Advances&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/inoculateexperiment&quot;&gt;cam.ac.uk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Wood, T. y Porter, E. (2019). &quot;The Elusive Backfire Effect&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Political Behavior&lt;/em&gt; 41. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y&quot;&gt;doi:10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Slaughter, I. et al. (2025). Efecto de las Community Notes. &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12478135/&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;McCabe, S. D. et al. (2024). &quot;Post-January 6th deplatforming reduced the reach of misinformation on Twitter&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 630. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07524-8&quot;&gt;doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07524-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Jhaver, S. et al. (2021). &quot;Evaluating the Effectiveness of Deplatforming as a Moderation Strategy on Twitter&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Proc. ACM HCI&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/3479525&quot;&gt;doi:10.1145/3479525&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Comisión Europea. Código de Buenas Prácticas contra la Desinformación. &lt;a href=&quot;https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/code-practice-disinformation&quot;&gt;digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;SEAE (2024). &lt;em&gt;2nd EEAS Report on Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference Threats&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/2nd-eeas-report-foreign-information-manipulation-and-interference-threats_en&quot;&gt;eeas.europa.eu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;</content:encoded><enclosure url="https://quantarmy.com/content/images/2026/10/memetic-wars.png" length="0" type="image/png"/><category>Militar</category><author>Jesus Cuesta</author></item></channel></rss>